Has Hlai grammar
This article is a description of the grammar of standardized Has Hlai, a Hlai language spoken on the island of Hainan, China, by the Hlai (Li) ethnic group. The parts of speech are nouns, verbs, adjectives, conjunctions, numerals, adverbs, and pronouns.[1][2] IntroductionThe Hlai people (or, as they are called in Chinese, the Li – 黎族) are the original inhabitants of southern Hainan. A Kra–Dai people, they are believed to have settled there at least 2,000 to 6,000 years ago, and carry genetic markers from ancient people who reached the island between 7,000 and 27,000 years ago.[3] The Pre-Hlai language they spoke would later evolve into Proto-Hlai, and from there into the modern Hlai languages. In June 1956, China's government implemented research on Hainan Island of the Hlai people's language. A 1983 report, Liyu diaocha yanjiu (黎语调查研究),[4] claimed that the Hlai language is made up of five languages[clarification needed]: Has 侾黎, Gheis 杞黎, Hyuuen 本地黎, Moeifou 美孚黎, and Deitou 加茂黎. For education, the Lauxhuet dialect of Has (Chinese: 侾方言罗活土语) in Ledong Baoyou Baoding (Chinese: 乐东抱由镇保定村) was chosen to be the Li's standardized language. It was this language from which the "Li orthography" (Chinese: 黎文方案) was developed. In September 1984, two organizations, Central University for Nationalities and the Institute of Minorities in Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, made some revisions to the Li orthography. The Hlai language's orthography was finalized with the publishing of a textbook entitled Basic Li Course (Pinyin: Liyu Jichu Jiaocheng; Chinese: 黎语基础教程).[5] At the end of 2019, a Hlai-language dictionary was officially posted online (http://www.tunhlai.com). Phonology and orthographyConsonantsHas Hlai has 31 consonants.[6] /ȶ/ is only found as a coda.
Notes:
Vowel rimes
TonesHas Hlai has 3 tones. Each tone can take two forms, depending on whether the syllable ends in a stop ("tonic tone")[clarification needed] or not ("level tone")[clarification needed].
NounsCommon nounsRelated to mankind/person
Related to objects/things
Related to time or space
Proper nounsPeople
Group/organization/party
Places
Nations
Abstract nounsThese nouns are mostly loan words. The Hlai language being both practical and concrete in nature, is not suitable for describing anything intangible.[citation needed] Basic rules for nouns1. Nouns usually cannot be modified by number alone; the number needs a proper classifier following the number to modify the noun. zuu a/one lang CL dzax snake "a snake" But, nouns associated with dates (like year, month, day), are modified with numbers alone (no classifiers).
When the word "nyaen" refers to the name of a month (as May above), a number can modify "nyaen" without a classifier. However, when the word "nyaen" refers to the number of months (as below), a classifier is required to modify the word "nyaen." ba five hom CL nyaen month "five months" 2. Nouns cannot be modified by adverbs, nor can a noun be doubled (e.g., **uxaeu uxaeu, "man man"; **blongs blongs, "house house") to express the meaning of "every" as is done in Chinese. The way to present the meaning of "every" is to use the word "ranx" plus a proper classifier as below:
3. Although the Hlai language does not have declension of gender, it does have two prefixes to indicate the gender: "bais" for female and "pas" for male, e.g.
When the word "bais" exists alone, the meaning is mother; "pas" means father. "Pas" could also be used as a classifier, e.g., Kun PL hluuekmuuen young man hauux those zuu one pas CL lax eat zuu one hom. CL "Each of those young men ate one." 4.The Hlai language does not use suffixes or prefixes for nouns to denote plurality as in the English language. But, the Hlai language uses the word "kun" to indicate the plurality of nouns, e.g. Kun PL aeudza old man rien say/talk/speak tun word raeu laugh dhuus in fou under cai. tree "The old men were telling jokes under the tree." The word "kun" can also be used together with a number and a classifier to modify nouns, e.g., Kun PL hlaus two zuen CL kauus older sister fuuek weave riens skirt paens. decorative pattern "The two older sisters were weaving skirts with a decorative pattern." 5. A noun can be a subject, predicate, object, e.g. cai tree subject tuuen out of
ceeng flower object "trees bloom (flowers)" Veengs shirt/top subject hauux that
veengs shirt/top predicate meuu. you.SG
"That shirt/top is yours." 6. A noun can be an attribute, and also can be modified by attributes e.g. Meuu you kweis want ojiep learn caqias script Hlai Li da? Q "Do you want to learn Hlai script?" 7. A noun can also be an adverbial modifier, e.g. Tong tong neix this cai tree/wood vuek. do/make "This hookah is made out of wood." (tong = An apparatus for smoking, such as a hookah) 8. A noun in relation to time can even be an adverbial modifier to modify a verb, e.g. Hwanneix today fous hot dhat very lo! ACCENT "It's so hot today!" Na he/she uunyeuu day after tomorrow hei go zok to/toward das. mother's mother "He is going to grandma's house the day after tomorrow." Fa we uupans yesterday beuuluueng. come back "We came back yesterday." 9. When the word "guu" is placed before a noun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g. Vabheny airplane neix this guu POSS Dongxgok. China "This airplane belongs to China." Hlaus two lang CL duis water buffalo neix this guu POSS Laufus. Mr. Fu "These two water buffaloes belong to Mr. Fu." VerbsAction verbs
Linking verbs
Verbs for expressing mental activities
Verbs for expressing existence, change, development
Modal verbs
Verbs of motion
Basic rules for verbsTense/aspectIn Hlai language, verbs never change their form. The placement of an adverb or an auxiliary word after or before a verb determines the verb's tense. Progressive aspectThe adverbial word "faets" or "fietla" can express the action in process, and is placed before a verb, e.g., Hluuek child na he/she fietla ADV.PROG laix plough dax. field "His children/child are/is plowing the field." (Chinese: 他的孩子正在犁田) Perfect aspectThe verbs with the word "bhaeis" expresses an action that has already happened. If "bhaeis" is placed before a verb, it is an adverbial,e.g., Hluuek child na he/she bhaeis ADV.PERF hei go ang field he. ACCENT "His children/child already went to the field." (Chinese: 他的孩子已经去山栏地了) Pashlaus older brother na he/she bhaeis ADV.PERF bleuu hear fan then rien, say "Eis, ACCENT hluumsghweuu don't know na he/she guu. FUT loms still/again cas or da?" not 'When his brother heard of it, he said, "Oh, I don't know that he would still do that (or) not?"' (Chinese: 他哥哥（已经）听了便说，"哎，不知道他还要这样不?") If the word "bhaeis" is placed after a verb, it acts as a complement and means "finished", e.g., The word "dhuas" can also denote the perfect aspect, ("(1) v.: pass through; (2) an auxiliary word that indicates that an action has already happened, and is placed after the verb; (3) an auxiliary word that expresses a comparison, and is placed after the adjective") e.g., Meuu you laeis see zuu one zuen CL aeu person/people neix this dhuas PERF cas or da? not "Have you ever seen this man?" (Chinese: 你见过这个人吗？) Dhes I da not rien say/speak dhongneix like this dhuas. PERF "I didn't say anything like that." (Chinese: 我没有说过这样的话) Future aspectThe auxiliary word "kweis" or "guu" indicates that an action is in future by being placed before a verb, e.g., The nuance between the two words "kweis" and "guu" is that: when two verbs are used together, if the first one is the method of the second one, or the second one is the purpose of the first one, only the word "guu" can be placed before the second verb, e.g., Bhoek carry noms water guu for the purpose of roengx cook tax. rice "bring the water (used) for cooking" (Chinese: 打水煮饭) OthersIf an action only lasts for a short while, the adverbial word "zuufanx" is placed after the verb, e.g., Duuengx to let/to allow hou I cat wear zuufanx. a short while "Let me wear it (for) a short while." (Chinese: 给我穿一下子) Verbs as predicatesHlai verbs, including action verbs, verbs for expressing mental activities, and verbs for expressing existence, change, and development, can be predicates or predicate heads in a sentence. Most of these verbs can be followed by objects or by complements, and can be modified by adverbials, nouns of time, and auxiliary words, e.g., Nominal verbsHlai verbs, except for linking verbs, can usually be made nominal by adding a prefix "uu-"; nominal verbs can be a subject, but cannot be a major part of the predicate, e.g., Uu-laix NMLZ-plow hauux that dax field hou. my "The field that has been plowed is mine." (Chinese: 那犁过的是我的田) Uu-buuen NMLZ-come hauux that ghueng young brother or sister dhes. my "The one who is coming is my brother/sister." (Chinese: 那个来的是我的弟弟（妹妹）) Nominal verbs still can function as a verb with an object following it; the nominal verb and the object together can function as a subject, object or nominal predicate, e.g., Duis buffalo neix this man is uu-duuengx NMLZ-give hlausghueng. relatives "The buffalo is for (giving to) the relatives." (Chinese: 这牛是给亲戚的) Uu-oep NMLZ-love hou me man is dhangjis comrade hou. my "The one who loves me is my comrade." (Chinese: 爱我的是我的同志) DoublingHlai verbs are rarely doubled as they are in Chinese; only monosyllabic action verbs and verbs for expressing mental activities can be doubled. Doubled monosyllabic verbs imply that the action is casually and carelessly done, e.g., Na he/she bleuu hear bleuu hear fan then beuu. go back "He (only) heard about/of it and went back." (Chinese: 他听了听就回去了) Kun PL hluuekueng young girl dzueis look dzueis look fan then fei walk hluet go into blongs. house "The girls (only) taking a quick look, then went into the house." (Chinese: 姑娘们看了看就走进屋里去了) A verb followed by "laeis" comes to mean "to try"; if a verb is followed by an object, the word "laeis" should be placed after the object, e.g., Modal verbsModal verbs are usually placed before a verb forming the predicate of a sentence to express 1) the ability of the one performing the action, or 2) the possibility, obligation, or need of the action, e.g., Meuu You kiemx should/must hei go geek look for guns. firewood "You should look for firewood." (Chinese: 你应该去砍柴) Meuu you guulax should/must dhongneix like this vuek do naus just dhiu. right "You must do (it) like this, (for it) to be done just right." (Chinese: 你必须这样做才对) Modal verbs cannot be followed by noun-objects, nor can modal verbs be doubled, except in an interrogative sentence, that a positive and negative modal verb is used to ask yes or no, e.g., Only in answering questions, can a modal verb act alone as a predicate, except for the modal verbs "kiemx", "guulax" and the word "guu", which cannot act as a predicate, e.g., Meuu You gieu be able to rien say/speak tun word Hlai Li cas or da? not? Dhes I gieu. be able to "Can you speak the Hlai/Li language? I can." (Chinese: 你能说黎语吗？我能) Modal verbs sometimes can be followed by an object, e.g., Na he bhaeis already o learn (loan word) kueng know how qias script Hlai Li he. ACCENT "He already learned the Hlai's/Li's script." (Chinese: 他已经学会黎文了) The antonym of the modal verb "kweis" is "ais"; the antonym of "kueng" is "hluums", and that of "gieu" is "gax", which cannot be used in the imperative mood. Verbs of motionVerbs of motion can act alone as a predicate, e.g., Also, verbs of motion can follow a main verb to express the direction of the action forming a predicate, e.g., Na he/she tuuen from blongs house ghoux run tuuen go out buuen. come "He ran out of the house." (Chinese: 他从屋里跑出来) Zuufanx a short while blei swim hei, go to, zuufanx a short while blei swim luueng. go back "swim back and forth." (Chinese: 一会儿游去，一会儿游回) Also, verbs of motion can combine together and become compound words as can be seen in the chart below:
The compound words above can be followed by objects, e.g., Hou I hwanneix today bhaeis already duengx carry/bring heikaen go up hwous. mountain "I have already brought (it) to the mountain today." (Chinese: 我今天已经送到山上去) Pasdza Father ghuis lead/direct na he/she heihluet go into hwous mountain hloek. deep "Father took him into the remote mountains." (Chinese: 父亲带他进入深山) Pasbhanghlauux name of a man fan then beuuluueng come back blongs. home "Then, Pasbhanghlauux went home." (Chinese: Pasbhanghlauux 便回家去) Except for the word "luueng", the words found in the first column of the chart ("dhuas", "kaen", "luei", "hluet", "tuuen", and "beuu") and the words found along the top row ("buuen", "hei", and "beuu") can exchange positions. After exchanging positions, the compound words cannot be followed by an object, and usually are used in imperative mood. Linking verbsLinking verbs are placed before nouns, noun phrases or pronouns, combining two grammatical parts as a predicate, to provide information about the objects, e.g., The linking verbs can be omitted, e.g., But, when the subject or predicate is too long, or when the predicate includes numbers, the linking verbs cannot be omitted, e.g., Gha We uengxtoengs everyone bhaeisbhaeis all ruus all man are uxaeu people Dongxgok. China "All of us are Chinese." (Chinese: 咱们大家都是中国人) Linking verbs cannot go with words that indicate the tense (like "faets" or "bhaeis" or "dhuas"), nor with directional verbs or with the complement, nor be modified by adverbials, or be doubled. Reciprocal verbsWhen the suffix "toengs" is added to some verbs, the compound words become reciprocal verbs, and cannot be followed by any objects, e.g., Duis Water buffalo tut'toengs. collide with each other "The buffaloes collided with each other." (Chinese: 牛互相碰撞) Na He/she hlaus two zuen CL oeptoengs love each other dhat. truly "The two of them love each other very much." (Chinese: 他们两人很相爱) Nouns and verbsSome words in Hlai language are both nouns and verbs, e.g.,
In Chinese and English, the verb "wear" can apply to different actions, like wearing a necklace, wearing a hat, or wearing earrings. However, in Hlai language these different actions are distinguished by different verbs, e.g.,
AdjectivesDescribing the characteristics of a person or thing
Describing the forms/attributes of thing
Describing the state of actions or emotions
Basic rules for adjectivesUse of adjectivesIn Hlai language, adjectives cannot be a subject, nor an object, but can act as a predicate, attribute, adverbial, or complement. As a predicateThe adjective goes after the subject, e.g., Zuu One hom CL coem fruit hauux that long big/large baisias. very much "That fruit (is) large!" (Chinese: 那一个果子很大) As an attributeThe adjective goes after the noun that is modified, e.g., As an adverbialThe adjective is placed before the verb, e.g., As a complementThe adjective usually comes after the verb in a sentence, e.g., AdverbsAn adjective also can be modified by adverbs, which can be placed either before or after the adjective, e.g., ComparisonIn Hlai language, adjectives have comparative and superlative degrees. Comparative degreeEither "dhuas" or "bhi", denote comparative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If the word "dhuas" is used, it should be placed after the adjective, and the adjective and "dhuas" should be placed between the two objects being compared, e.g., Baisdza Mother peek tall dhuas more than hluuekbaiskaux. daughter "The mother is taller than her daughter." (Chinese: 母亲高过女儿) If the loan word "bhi" is used, it is placed between the two objects being compared, and the adjective is placed after the latter object, e.g., Superlative degreeEither "vaeu" or "duix", denote superlative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If either "vaeu" or "duix" is used, it should be placed before the adjective, e.g., Baiscuty Youngest daughter duix most hlenymuuen. beautiful "The youngest daughter is most beautiful." (Chinese: 幺妹最漂亮) According to my Hlai language consultant, Mr. Liu, "The word veau could possibly imply a derogatory, an exaggerated or overstated statement." It depends on the context. Others"Zuugit", instead of indicating comparative or superlative degrees, denotes "(just) a little bit", e.g., Zuu One kuuengx CL cai tree neix this peek tall zuugit. a little bit "This three is just a little bit taller." (Chinese: 这棵树高一点) Nominal adjectivesExcept for adjectives that describe a mental/emotional status, adjectives can be made nominal by adding the prefix "uu-". Adjectives that are nominal cannot be a predicate, but can act as a subject, an object, or an attribute, e.g., Kai Chicken uu-long the big one hauux that man is guu POSS dhes. me "That big chicken is mine." (Chinese: 那只大的鸡是我的) DoublingAdjectives for describing the forms/attributes of things, and those for describing the status of actions or emotions, can be doubled, but the adjective has to be monosyllabic. When the adjectives are doubled, the degree of the adjective increases, e.g., (When the Hlai people are saying farewell (bye), "dais dais fei" is the phrase they say to each other.) Two different adjectives can be doubled like AABB, e.g., Two different adjectives also can be positioned in an ABAB pattern, e.g., Also, some monosyllabic adjectives express an increasing degree by the adding of a prefix, which combines the initial consonant of that adjective with a vowel like "i" or "u"; and the tone of the prefix is the first tone, e.g., li-loek INT-dark "pitch-dark" (Chinese: 黑漆漆) gu-goeks INT-concave "full of bumps and holes/uneven" (Chinese: 黑漆漆) Duplicated suffixSome adjectives can have a duplicated suffix tagged on to the ends, which cannot exist independently, to intensify the description, e.g., kaeu-laepplaepp white-something looks bright "something is so white as to be bright" (Chinese: 亮晶晶) Small and largeThe word "enyx" is used to describe something small, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the latter word, e.g.,
The word "long" is used to describe something big or large, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the former word, e.g.,
Another way to express something big or large is to add the prefix "bais-" to nouns related to objects/things; but, if the prefix "bais-" is added to nouns related to mankind/persons, it becomes an indicator of gender, e.g., Nouns that have the prefix "bais-" added on to them can be modified by the word "long" to increase the degree, e.g., If the speaker intends to increase the degree, the word "dhat" or "dhatdhat" can be added. NumbersNumbers in Hlai language, including cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, and numbers of approximation, usually act as subjects, predicate, or objects in a sentence. When numbers are used with classifiers, together they become a phrase that can be an attribute to modify the noun phrase. Cardinal numbersBasic numbers units
Basic numbers unit combinations
With nounsCardinal numbers by themselves usually cannot modify nouns, but need to be placed before a classifier to modify the noun that goes after the classifier, e.g., However, in relation to dates (like year, month, day), numbers can modify these types of nouns without classifiers. Meuuda you doengs live dhuus in Bhakgengs Beijing zuu one boux year hei pass lo. ACCENT "You have lived in Beijing for a year." (Chinese: 你们住在北京一年了) Na he hlaus two hwan day da not kaen go up hwous mountain geek search guns firewood lo. ACCENT "These past two days he has not gone up to the mountain to look for firewood." (Chinese: 他两天不上山砍柴了) DoublingCardinal numbers cannot be doubled, except for with "nguen" and "vaens"; when their pattern is AABB, and the resulting phrase means a number of great amount, e.g., Zaux have nguen thousand nguen thousand vaens ten thousand vaens ten thousand aeu man buuen. come "There are thousands of people coming." (Chinese: 有千千万万的人来) Sometimes, the words "nguen" and "vaens" combine with "jieng" or "zuu" to form an ABAC phrase to modify a noun, synonymous in meaning to the AABB pattern, e.g., Zaux have jieng form nguen thousand jieng form vaens ten thousand aeu man hei. go "There are thousands of people going." (Chinese: 有成千成万的人去) Zuu one nguen thousand zuu one vaens ten thousand aeu man ngan all qieng desire fas sky fun. rain "Thousands of people look forward to the rain." (Chinese: 千千万万的人都盼望天下雨) OneThere are four words ("zuu", "ceuus/zeuus", and "lax") that can represent the place value of "one", but each word has its own usage. First, when Hlai people count, they will say, "ceuus/zeuus, hlaus, fus, caus…(1, 2, 3, 4…)", they won't use "zuu" or "lax" for one. The word "zuu" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun. The digit 1, when it is either in the 100's, 1,000's, 10,000's, 100,000's.... place of a number, the word "zuu" should be used for 1, e.g., The digit 1, when it is either in the 10's or 1's place of a number, the word "ceuus/zeuus" should be used for 1, e.g., zuu one vaens ten hundred zuu one nguen thousand ceuus/zeuus one fuet ten ceuus/zeuus one "eleven thousand and eleven (11,011)" (Chinese: 一万一千零一十一) However, if the number is used with a classifier, then the word "zuu" should be used, e.g., The word "lax" cannot be used with a classifier. The word "lax" only can be used in the first digit when the number is bigger than ten. However, if the number is multiple of 10 like 100, 1000, 10000...etc., the word "zuu" should be used, instead of "lax". e.g., lax one nguen thousand dom six ghwaen hundred (= (= zuu one nguen thousand dom six ghwaen) hundred) "one thousand six hundred (1600)" (Chinese: 一千六百) TenThere are two words ("fuet" and "bun") that are used for the place value of "ten," but each word has its usage. First, "fuet" is used for the number ten when counting. "Bun" does not need to go with a classifier to modify a noun. However, if the word "bun" does go with a classifier to modify a noun, the only two classifiers that can be used are "hom" and "lang"; but when "lang" is used with people, "bun" cannot be used. "Fuet" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun, e.g., However, "fuet" can be placed in front of nouns, which are also classifiers, e.g., ZeroIn Hlai language, there is no word for the number "zero"; some areas adopted the loan word "lengs" (零，zero), e.g., However, the number "zero" can be represented by the conjunction "uengx" or "loms", e.g., fus three nguen thousand loms again hlaus two fuet ten (hom) (CLF) "three thousand and twenty (3020)" (Chinese: 三千零二十（个）) Rules for large numbersIn Hlai language, there are two rules to construct numbers: (1) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed after "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is addition, e.g., (2) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed before "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is multiplication, e.g., Ordinal numbersIn Hlai language, the word "ghwous" (头，head) or "ceuus" (一，one) means "first", and the word "cuty" (尾，tail) means "last"; for all numbers in between first and last, the word "tom" (中间，middle) is used. hluuek-ghwous-ghwa child-head-to plant "the first born child" (usually, it means "son"; Chinese: 老大（长子）) hluuek-tom child-middle "the child(ren) in the middle" (Chinese: 老二，老三…) hluuek-cuty child-tail "the youngest child" (Chinese: 老幺) When one's gender is needed, the word "pasmaen" (男人，man) or "baiskaux" (女人，woman) can be added, e.g., hluuek-pasmaen-ghwous-ghwa child-man-head-to plant = = hluuek-ghwous-ghwa child-head-to plant "the first born son" (Chinese: 长子) hluuek-baiskaux-ghwous-ghwa child-woman-head-to plant = = hluuek-baiskaux-long child-woman-big "the first born daughter" (Chinese: 大女儿) Usually "ghwous" indicates the oldest male; "long" the oldest female, like "kauuslong" (大姐, oldest sister), "zoulong" (大嫂，wife of oldest brother). Moreover, the prefix "pas-" (男性，man) or "bais-" (女性，woman) can be added to the words "tom" and "cuty", to indicate gender, e.g., pas-tom M-middle "the son in the middle" (Chinese: 次子) bais-cuty F-tail "the youngest daughter" (Chinese: 幺女) When ordinal numbers apply to things, usually the phrase is constructed by "ghwous" + "zuu" + a proper classifier to represent the first one, e.g., To present the last one, usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baiscuty" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g., To present the middle one(s), usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baistom" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g., Counting with ordinal numbersUsually, any accuracy in communication is done with loan words from Chinese, e.g.,
Counting the passage of years, months, days, or timeIn Hlai culture, people use a way similar to the Chinese Zodiac to count years, and even days, e.g.,
For counting months, in Hlai culture, there are two kinds of calendar: one is following the Han's solar calendar, e.g.,
The other is following the Han's lunar calendar, e.g.,
Number of ApproximationWith sequential numbersIn Hlai language, one way to represent approximate numbers is to place two or three sequential numbers together, e.g., Usually, the numbers one and two are not put together. With "probably"Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dzaengsloepp" (大约/大概，probably), e.g., The word "dzaengsloepp" also can be shortened to "loepp",e.g., loepp probably zaux have tou seven fuet ten ceuus one kuuengx CL.tree "probably have seventy-one (trees)" (Chinese: 大约有七十一棵) With "more than"Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dza" (余，a surplus/more than), e.g., The word "dza" can also be used with "loepp" to represent approximate numbers. The construction is "loepp" + zaux + number + "dza", e.g., Na he loepp probably zaux have fuet ten dza surplus boux year da not buuen come he. ACCENT "He hasn't come (to this place) for more than ten years." (Chinese: 他大约有十余年没来了) The word "zaux" in this construction can be omitted, e.g., Zuu one hom CL as watermelon neix this loepp probably fuet ten dza surplus gins. CL, about 500 g "This watermelon is a little more than 10 gins." (Chinese: 这个西瓜大约有十多斤) Small amountsThere are some synonyms, like "zuugit", "zuugitgit", "zuugitlaei", that can be used to represent approximate numbers. These words indicate the uncertainty of a small amount, e.g., The word "zuutom" (一部分，a part/some) represents the uncertainty of a given amount, e.g., zuutom some hei go zuutom some buuen come "Some (people) go, some (people) come." (Chinese: 一部分（人）去，一部分（人）来) Sometimes, the word "zuutom" means "half", e.g., Another word to represent the uncertainty of a given amount is "gei" (几, 若干, several), which implies the amount is less than ten, e.g., Mansnyoengx only zaux have gei several zuen CL aeu man buuen. come "Only a few people come (less than ten)" (Chinese: 只有几个人来) Large amountsThe word "hloei" (多, many/much) can represent the uncertainty of a great amount; if the amount is even greater, this word, "hloei" is repeated, "hloeihloei", e.g., Bhous village na he hauux that hloei many duis water buffalo dhat. very "There are a lot of buffalo in his village." (Chinese: 他那个村牛很多) Dhuix team fa we neix this zaux have uxaeu man hloeihloei. so many "We have so many people on this team." (Chinese: 我们这个队有许多人) When a certain amount is requested, the word "hloeiras" (多少，how many/much) can be used in an interrogative sentence, e.g., Meuu you zaux have hloeiras how many zuen CL hluuekghueng? younger sister or brother "How many younger brothers and sisters do you have?" (Chinese: 你有多少个弟弟妹妹？) ClassifiersClassifiers that modify nounsCommon classifiers
Classifiers for measurement
Classifiers derived from nouns or verbs
Classifiers for modifying verbs
Basic rules for classifiersClassifiers cannot be doubled as AA (e.g., lang lang), but can be used in a AB+AB pattern, e.g., Classifiers cannot modify nouns alone; classifiers and numbers must be used together to modify nouns, e.g., Classifiers (for modifying verbs) and numbers must be used together and be placed after the verb as a complement; in some regions, the combination (number+classifier) would be placed before the verb, e.g., In some occasions, the combination of numbers and classifiers exists alone, whereby they are not modifying any nouns or verbs, e.g., Hou I caty buy zuu one hom, CL meuu you ngan also caty buy zuu one hom. CL "I buy one, and you buy one." (Chinese: 我买一个，你也买一个) PronounsThere are three kinds of pronouns: the personal pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, and interrogative pronoun. Personal pronouns
The different usage of "hou" and "dhes":[24]
P.S. My language consultant said: the word "kun" is a simplified form of "kunaeu". Usually, in a conversation held between those of the same gender group, "kun" is used; in a conversation held between those of different gender groups, "kunaeu" would be used to show respect. Or, if a conversation were made up of those from both the older and younger generation, the younger generation would need to use "kunaeu" to show respect toward the elderly.
Personal pronouns can be both a subject and an object, e.g., Personal pronouns can also act as an attribute to indicate the possessive relation, e.g., Reflexive pronouns can be an appositive to another pronoun to emphasize the pronoun, e.g., The auxiliary word "guu" can be placed before a personal pronoun to indicate the possessive relation. After placing the word "guu", the pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g., Demonstrative pronouns
The word "neix" refers to someone, or something, at a close distance; the word "hauux" is farther away than the word "neix"; the word "max" is even farther. These three words also can be combined to the words "dhong" or "hi" and become compound words as below,
Other demonstrative pronouns are:
When a demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, it is placed before the head word, e.g., When a demonstrative pronoun combines with a number, a classifier, and a noun to form a noun phrase, the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, e.g., When a demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute in a noun phrase, it can be placed either in the beginning or at the end of the noun phrase, e.g., If the linking verb is placed between the demonstrative pronoun and the noun, the demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, e.g., The words "neix", "hauux", and "max" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and an object; the word "uughwaix" can be a subject, an attribute, and an object; the compound words "dhongneix", "dhonghauux", "hineix", and "hihauux" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and a predicate, e.g., There is no declension in demonstrative pronouns to indicate singular or plural. So, the demonstrative pronouns need to go with the number and classifier, or the word "zuugit" to indicate singular or plural, e.g., Zuu one kun CLF daty bird hauux that bheny fly he. ACCENT "The flock of birds (is) flying away." (Chinese: 那一群鸟飞了) When the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, it is usually placed after the head word, e.g., When the demonstrative pronoun is placed after the personal pronoun, or the interrogative pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun loses its meaning, and becomes an empty word that functions as an emphasis to make it sound fluent, e.g., Meuu you neix empty word kweis want dheuu take gong stuff meshes? what "What are you going to take?" (Chinese: 你要拿什么东西？) The demonstrative pronoun "ranx" is only placed before the classifier, and can be doubled for emphasis, e.g., The demonstrative pronoun "uughwaix" can be an attribute and an object, e.g., Interrogative pronouns
The interrogative word "uuras" ("asras") can be a subject, an attribute, or an object, e.g., Just like personal pronouns, when the auxiliary word "guu" is placed before an interrogative pronoun, it indicates a possessive relation, and the interrogative pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g., The interrogative word "meshes" cannot be a subject, only an attribute or an object, e.g., The interrogative word "ras" cannot be a subject, only an attribute, an adverbial or an object., e.g., When the word "ras" acts as an attribute, it is usually used with a number and clasiifier, and is placed before a noun, e.g., Ras which zuu one hom CLF blongs house vaeu most long? big "Which house is the biggest one?" (Chinese: 哪一个房子最大？) When the word "ras" acts as an adverb, it is usually placed after the adjective, e.g., The interrogative word "dhongras" usually acts as an adverbial, and is most often is placed before a verb, but sometimes it can be placed after a verb, e.g., Ang hilly field neix this ghwa plant dhongras? how? "How is this hilly field to be planted?" (Chinese: 这山栏地怎样种？) The interrogative word "qiras" most often acts as an adverbial, and must be placed before the verb, e.g., Meuu you qiras when hei go qix? street "When are you heading out for the streets (to buy something)?" (Chinese: 你什么时候上街？) The interrogative word "hloeiras" most often acts as an object, e.g., Meuu you zaux have hloeiras, how many hou I dheuu take hloeiras. how many "However many you have, I will take them." (Chinese: 你有多少，我要多少) AdverbsNegation
These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verbs or adjectives, e.g., Gong stuff neix this reek bad he, ACCENT yous don't lax. eat "This stuff (is) bad, don't eat (it)!" (Chinese: 这东西坏了，别吃！) When the adverb "da" modifies verbs or adjectives, and "zo", an accentuated emphatic particle, is placed at the end of the sentence, "da" means "not yet", e.g., When the adverb "da" is placed at the end of a sentence, then the word "da" signals a question, e.g., Degree
These adverbs are usually placed before the adjectives to modify them, e.g., But, the adverbs "dhat" and "baisias" are placed after the adjectives. These two words also can modify verbs, e.g., To increase the degree of something, two different adverbs can modify the same term, e.g., The word "dhat" can be doubled to increase the degree, e.g., Veengs shirt/top neix this hleny good dhatdhat. very much "This shirt/top is a very good one." (Chinese: 这件衣服非常好) Scope, extent, or range
These adverbs are usually placed before the verbs to modify them, e.g., These adverbs "mans" and "nyoengx" can be linked together to emphasize the voice, e.g., Na he/she mans-nyoengx only zaux have zuu one zuen CLF hluuek. child "He has only one child." (Chinese: 他只有一个孩子) Timing
These adverbs cannot be doubled for intensity, except for the adverb "naeus", e.g., Adverbs for indicating timing usually modify verbs, and are placed before the verbal phrase, e.g., Zuughanx right after hluet enter blongs house hou I fan then laeis see na. he/she "As soon as I entered the house, I saw him." (Chinese: 一进门我就看见他) meuu you buuen come dhaens to neix here goms then bhaeisyous never/not hei go beuu. back "(Since) You came here, don't go back." (Chinese: 你来到这里了，就别再回去了) However, the adverb "kuenx" can also be placed after the verbal phrase, e.g., Duplication or continuation
These adverbs modify verbs; the word "loms" or "uuloms" is placed before a verb, and the word "toengs" is placed after a verb, e.g., The verb being modified by the adverb "toengs" can be modified by other adverbs, which are placed before the verb, e.g., Meuuda you.PL yous don't taeix fight toengs each other as! ACCENT "Don't fight each other!" (Chinese: 你们别互相打架了！) Emphasis or transition
These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g., Baiscai big-tree long big neix such oms but caeu. break "Such a big tree, but (it) was broken!" (Chinese: 这样大的树却断了) Aeu others naus EMPH cas scold meuu you vuek do meshes what (= why) "Why do people scold you?" (Chinese: 人家到底为什么骂你？) A more unusual placement of these adverbs is at the beginning of a sentence, e.g., ConjunctionsLink nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, or verb-object phrases
That link nouns: Ba dog ku and bou pig zestoengs fight each other kweis want lax eat tax. rice "A dog and a pig fight each other for food to eat." (Chinese: 狗和猪争吃) Toengsdhun wife nyuek and toengsblongs husband uengxtoengs together ojiep. learn "A husband and (his) wife study together." (Chinese: 妻子和丈夫共同学习) That link pronouns: Hou I uengx and meuu you uengxtoengs together vuek do gong. work "I and you will work together." (Chinese: 我和你共同干活) That link noun phrases: Hou I duuengx give meuu you dheuu AUX zuu one hom CLF coem fruit long big ku and hlaus two hom CLF guengs. basket "I'll give you the big fruit and two large baskets." (Chinese: 我给你一个大果子和两个大箩筐) That link verb-object phrases: Dhes I hei go qix street lax eat tax rice ku and lax eat bhiengx. sticky rice wine "I hit the streets to eat rice and drink wine." (Chinese: 我上街吃饭和喝酒) These conjunctions can be added to more than two nouns, pronouns, or phrases; These conjunctions can even be placed before the first noun, pronoun, or phrase, e.g., Uengx and hou I uengx and meuu you uengx and na he hei go caty buy gong. stuff "I and you and he will go shopping." (Chinese: 我和你和他去买东西) These conjunctions can also function as prepositions, as can be seen in the chart below:
The word "nyuek" is used in Hlai's folk song, and can be linked with a verb, e.g., Baisdza Mother zok rebuke nyuek and cas, scold, pasdza father cas scold nyuek and taeix. beat "(The) mother rebuked and scolded, (the) father scolded and beat." (Chinese: 母亲边数落边骂，父亲又骂又打) Some adverbs, like "loms" (又，却，again) and "hloeis" (顺便，by the way, 而且 and), can also function as conjunctions, e.g., Duis water buffalo hauux that long big hloeis and ghweis. fat "That buffalo is big and fat." (Chinese: 那头水牛大而且肥) Link verbs, adjectives, and phrases
Meuu You gaux lie down cuus or zongs sit ngan also loepp. allow "You are allowed to either lie down or sit down." (Chinese: 你躺或者坐着都可以) Generally, the word "cas" is a synonym of "cuus." Both can be used in indicative and interrogative sentences. But, another synonym "cuusnaus" can only be used in interrogative sentences, e.g., Link a single subordinate clause
Hans Because na he da not buuen, come, hou I da not hei go bhe. ACCENT "Because he didn't come, I didn't go." (Chinese: 因为他不来，所以我不去了) Na He kueng know caqias, script dosdzis so na he kuengghweuu know li. principle "Because he knows the script, he understands the principle." (Chinese: 因为他有知识，所以他懂道理) Laeis If meuu you hei, go hou I goms then dzoeng wait meuu. you "If you go, then I'll wait for you." (Chinese: 如果你去，我就等你) qimax Before gha we vaet poor baisias, very much tom but hansneix now da not dhong like qihauux before bhe. ACCENT "Before we were very poor, but now we are not like we were before." (Chinese: 以前我们很穷，但是现在和那个时候不同了) The word "dagoms" also means "not only" or "or", e.g., Na He dagoms not only gieu know how laix plow dax, field uuloms but also gieu know how kieux reap muens. rice "Not only does he know how to plow, but he also knows how to harvest." (Chinese: 他不但会犁田，而且会割稻) Meuu You fei walk guen road hei, go dagoms otherwise zongs sit qia car hei. go "You (can) walk (there), or take a bus (there)." (Chinese: 你走路去，或者坐车去) Link two or more clauses
Gas Horse dacaux not only lax eat gans, grass lax eat uengx also noms. water "A horse not only eats grass, but also drinks water." (Chinese: 马不但吃草，而且喝水) Na He dacaux not only taeix beat meuu, you taeix beat koms even hou. me "Not only did he beat you, he even beat me." (Chinese: 他不但打你，而且打我) Dhes I dacaux not only zaux have pasghueng, younger brother, zaux have toep even baisghueng. younger sister "I not only have (a) younger brother(s), (but) I even have (a) younger sister(s)." (Chinese: 我不但有弟弟，而且有妹妹) Generally, the word "danyoengx" or "dagoms" is the synonym of the word "dacaux", e.g., Duis buffalo neix this danyoengx not only long big kaux, strength uuloms but also doengs live gans. grass "The cow is not only strong, but it also eats grass quietly." (Chinese: 这头牛不但力气大，而且安静吃草) Na He dagoms not only gieu know how laix plow dax, field uuloms but also gieu know how kieux reap muens. rice "He not only knows how to plow the field, but he also knows how to harvest the rice." (Chinese: 他不但会犁田，而且会割稻)
Hans Because uupans yesterday fas sky fun, rain dosdzis so hou I gax cannot buuen. come "(Because) It was raining yesterday, so I couldn't come." (Chinese: 因为昨天下雨，所以我不能来) Relationships between linked elementsParallel relationshipThe conjunction words that express a parallel relationship are "uengx" (和, and), "ku" (和, and), and "nyuek" (和, and), e.g., Toengsdhun Wife nyuek and toengsblongs husband uengxtoengs together ojiep. study/learn "The husband and wife study together." (Chinese: 妻子和丈夫共同学习) Hou I hei go qix street caty buy veengs shirt/top ku and caty buy kous. pants "I went shopping to buy a coat and to buy pants. (Chinese: 我上街买上衣和买裤子) Progressive relationshipThe conjunctions that express a progressive relationship are "loms" (又, again), "hloeis"(并且, 而且, and), and similar phrases like "dacaux…koms…" (不但...而且...，not only... but also...), e.g., Na He lax eat zuu one feek bite loms and zuu one feek. bite "He eats (one) bite by (one) bite." (Chinese: 他吃一口又一口) Na He dacaux not only cas scold hou, me cas scold koms/uengx even/and meuu. you "Not only did he scold me, but he even/also scolded you." (Chinese: 他不但骂我，而且骂你) In the construction of phrases like "dacaux…koms…" ("not only…but also…"), the conjunctions "but also" ("koms", "uengx", or "toep") must be placed in the second clause, between the verb and the object. Optional relationshipThe conjunctions that express an optional relationship are "cuus" (或, or), "cas" (或, or), "cuusnaus" (或, or), "casnus" (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g., Meuuda You kweis want hei go geek look for hla fish cuus or da? not "Are you going to go fishing or not?" (Chinese: 你要去捕鱼还是不去？) Meuu You kweis want dheuu take zuucoeis litchi cuusnaus or dheuu take zuuyunx？ coconut "Do you want to choose litchi or coconut?" (Chinese: 你要拿荔枝还是椰子？) Transitional relationshipThe conjunctions that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "tus" (但是, but), e.g., Na He ghwaix is not Hlai, Li tom but kueng know rien say tun language Hlai Li "He is not a Li, but he speaks the Li dialect." (Chinese: 他不是黎族，但会讲黎话) Na He kweis want hei, go oms but wenysnaeis no hwan day "He's willing to go, but there's no time." (Chinese: 他愿意去，但没有时间) Conditional relationshipThe conjunctions that express a conditional relationship are "laeis", "dalunx", e.g., Dalunx no matter what na he rien say dhongras, how hou I ngan also hei go "No matter what he says, I'll go." (Chinese: 不管他怎样说，我都去) Laeis If na he da not buuen, come hou I goms then hei go lo ACCENT "If he doesn't come, then I'll go." (Chinese: 如果他不来，我就去了) Causal relationshipThe conjunctions that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g., Fas Sky fun, rain yous don't hei, go dagoms otherwise ia gain cok sickness "It's raining. Don't go! Otherwise, you'll get sick." (Chinese: 天下雨了，别去，不然要得病) PrepositionsPlace, direction, or timeThe prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
However, as more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, they have gradually adopted Chinese grammar, and have placed the prepositional phrase before the verb, e.g., The word "ueks" can be placed after the preposition "dhuus", e.g., The prepositional phrase being constructed by the word "ueks" can also act as a subject, e.g., Ueks Inside blongs house neix this mangshais dark baisias. very "Inside of the house is very dark." (Chinese: 这屋子里面暗得很) The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after the verb, and acts as a complement.
Bhousaeu Guest dzoeng wait meuu you dhaens until cop. night "The guest(s) waited for you until night." (Chinese: 客人等你到晚上) Aeu People fei walk reuureuu back and forth dhuas along ngaeix edge bhous. village "People walk back and forth along the outskirts of the village." (Chinese: 人们络绎不绝走过村边) The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
Na He niens along guen road hauux that hei go ohyaeu. school "He traveled along that road to school." (Chinese: 他沿着那条路去学校) However, the prepositional phrase of "niens" can also be placed after a verb, e.g., Prepositions related to method
Kunaeu They aens according to laeustaeng work gieu strong ku and gax weak buuen come gauxtoengs. distribute "They distributed the work according to the capability of the laborers." (Chinese: 他们按劳动的强弱来分配) Prepositions related to reason, or purpose
The word "cuuslax" is only used in poetry as above. Veeng Master duis water buffalo kweis want beuu go back fan then taeix hit duis, water buffalo guu ghais in order that duis water buffalo dzuuns fast/quick fei. walk "The buffalo's owner wanted to go home and so hit the buffalo, in order to get the buffalo to walk fast." (Chinese: 牛主人要回家就打牛，为了叫牛快走) Since more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, sometimes they express the purpose by using the loan word "uis" or "uisliaeus". Prepositions related to objectThe prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after verbs, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
Na He vaet poor toep/koms even fok place gaux to sleep ngan also wenysnaeis. no "He is so poor that he even has no place to sleep." (Chinese: 他穷得连睡的地方也没有) However, because of the influence of Chinese grammar, the "ku" prepositional phrase can also be placed before the verb, e.g., When a prepositional phrase, constructed by the preposition "dhuas," modifies an adjective as a complement, it indicates a comparison.
Ghueng Younger sister baiscuty youngest hlenymuuen beautiful dhuas than kun plural hluuekkauus. older sister "The youngest sister is more beautiful than her older sisters." (Chinese: 幺妹子比姐姐们漂亮) The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
However, the prepositional phrase using "uengx" can also be placed after the verb, e.g., Na He buuen come doengs play uengx with hluuekpasghueng. young brother "He came to play with (his) little brother." (Chinese: 他来跟小弟玩) Prepositions related to agentThe prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
Baisdza Mother dheuu use ghei rice roengx cook tax. rice "Mother cooked rice from grains of rice." (Chinese: 母亲把米煮成饭) Auxiliary wordsStructural auxiliary wordsThere are three words in the category of structural auxiliary words: "guu", "uu-", and "dhaens" When the word "guu" is placed before a noun or a pronoun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g., However, the word "guu" can be omitted, e.g., The auxiliary prefix "uu-" can be added to some verbs or adjectives. After adding this prefix, the nominalized verb or adjective can be a subject, object, or an attribute, but cannot be a predicate, e.g., Another structural auxiliary word is "dhaens". It is usually placed after a verb or an adjective, and is followed by a complement that indicates the result or degree of the action/situation, e.g., Na He hei go dhaens arrive ngaeix edge/bank noms river fan then beuuluung. come back "He went to the riverside and later he will come back." (Chinese: 他去到河边就回来) Past tense auxiliary wordThe word "dhuas" is placed after a verb to indicate an action has already happened, e.g., Acting-receiving auxiliary wordsBoth the auxiliary words "lax" and "dheuu" are often used to indicate the relationship of acting and receiving between an agent and a patient. The original meaning of the word "lax" is "to eat", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word; the word "lax" is usually placed after the person-object in double-object sentences, even when the thing-object is absent. Pashlaus Older brother hou my duuengx give na him lax AUX zuu one lang CLF ba. dog "My brother gave him a dog." (Chinese: 我哥哥给他一只狗) The original meaning of the word "dheuu" is "to take", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word, e.g., Zuu One hom CLF zuuyunx coconut neix this duuengx give meuu you dheuu. AUX "This coconut is for you." (Chinese: 这一个椰子给你) Generally, the word "lax" and "dheuu" are exchangeable. Accent markersIndicative moodThere are several words used in the indicative mood, like "lo", "bhe", "ve/vi", "he", "zu/zo", and "rus" 【lo, 了】This word indicates that something is in the process, or is forth coming, and it expresses the feeling of hope or surprise, e.g., Meuu you dhongneix like this vuek do goms then da not dhiu right lo. ACCENT "It is not right for you to do this." (Chinese: 你这样做就不对了) 【bhe, 啊】This word indicates something has already happened, and it usually does not express the subjective feeling, e.g., 【ve/vi, 的, 了】This word indicates that the speaker is explaining something, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g., Qias letter neix this ghwaix is not hou I taeis write ve. ACCENT "This word is not what I wrote." (Chinese: 这字不是我写的) Meuu you duuengx give hou I goms then bhaeis finish ve. ACCENT "Give (it to) me, then it's done." (Chinese: 你给我就行了) 【he，啦】This word indicates something has already happened, and it does not express the subjective feeling, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g., 【zo/zu，还…呢】This word indicates something is a fact or true, in which the speaker tries to persuade others, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g., Sometimes the words "zo/zu" can have "ho" or "nex" added to them to put an emphasis on the mood, e.g., Aeu person reek bad hauux that da not hlaeux die zuho! ACCENT "Why hasn't the bad man died yet?" (Chinese: 那个坏人怎么还没死呢！) 【rus，呢】This word indicates that something is not sure, and the speaker's tone is mild and indirect, tactful, e.g., Fa we neix this zuu one tienx fish's name zans up zuu one tienx fish's name luei, down da not laeis see rus. ACCENT "(A fish said:) We fish swam back and forth, (you) did not see." (Chinese: 我们这鲩鱼一下游上，一下游下，没看见呢) There are several words used in the interrogative mood, like "hos", "yos", "os", "hyos", "zuumos", "huux", "hauux", "yax", "nex/nix", "zuurasve", "bas/vixbas", and "zuuras/cuusras". 【hos，yos，os，hyos, zuumos，吗】These words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g., Meuu You beuu come back ngop think dhang face hou my vi ACCENT zuumos? Q "You came back (because) you are thinking of me?" (Chinese: 你回来是因为想我吗？) 【huux，hauux，呢，呀】These words are used in sentences with an interrogative pronoun, e.g., 【nex/nix，yax，呢，呀】These words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g., Gha we uengxtoengs everyone kweis AUX caep carry by hands cas or caem carry or shoulders nix? Q "Do we carry (it) with our hands or carry (it) on our shoulders?" (Chinese: 咱们大家要挑还是抬呢？) 【zuuras/cuusras，吗】These words are used in interrogative sentences where the speaker inquires by questioning closely, e.g., Hwanneix today hou I uengx and na he kweis auxiliary hei go, Damxax, Sanya meuu you loms again da not hei go zuuras? Q "Today I'm going to Sanya with him, aren't you going?" (Chinese: 今天我和他要去三亚，难道你又不去吗？) Kun they uengxtoengs everyone vuek do gong, work meuu you oms but da not vuek do cuusras? Q "Everyone is working, but why aren't you?" (Chinese: 他们一起干活，难道你不干吗？) 【zuurasve，bas/vixbas，吧，了吧】These words express a possibility, e.g., There are several words used in the imperative mood, like "as", "bas", "res", "bhislo". 【as，吧，啊】This word is used to enjoin or to exhort someone to join in to do something, and the tone is soft and gentle, e.g., 【bas，啊，吧】This word is used to command, to request, or to exhort someone to do something, e.g., 【bhislo，咯】This word is used by one with a discontented mood to command, to request, or to hasten someone to do something, e.g., Hansneix now bhaeis already zaux have caqias script gha we Hlai, Li, uengxtoengs everyone guulax should tuuen out. kaux strength o learn bhislo! IMP "Now that we Li already have a script, we should do our best to learn it!" (Chinese: 现在已经有咱们黎族文字，大家应该要努力学习咯！) Sometimes the word "bhislo" is also used to put an emphasis on the indicative mood, e.g., Meuu You hluumsghweuu NEG-know mos？ Q Neix This man is caqias script Hlai Li bhislo! ACCENT "Don't you know? This is Li people's script!" (Chinese: 你不知道吗？这就是黎族文字呀！) 【res，吧】The usage of this word is similar with the word "bas", however, the tone of the word "res" is kind and warm, e.g., Exclamatory moodThere are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aiho", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feeling, e.g., Usually, these words are placed in the end of a sentence; however, sometimes these words act as one word sentences, e.g., O! EXCM Pasceuus guy hauux that hleny good dhat very o! EXCM "Ah! That young man is great!" (Chinese: 啊！那小伙子好极了！) Onomatopoeic wordsOnomatopoeic words for expressing the feeling of surprise, exclamation, or agreement. Usually, these words are independent/separated from a sentence or clause, e.g., However, some onomatopoeic words can go with or within a sentence or clause, e.g., Onomatopoeic words for imitating human, animate, or nature sounds，e.g., Hluuek'ueng Girl raeux laugh hihi ONOMATOPOEIA dhuus in hauux. there "The girl laughed there." (Chinese: 姑娘在那里嘻嘻地笑) Gaet Frog (with-long-legs) fan then loms again roeng, call "Beets! ONOMATOPOEIA Beets! ONOMATOPOEIA Beets!" ONOMATOPOEIA "The frog called again, "Ribbit! Ribbit! Ribbit!" (Chinese: 长腿蛙又叫，"别！别！别") More onomatopoeic words below:
PhrasesThe construction of phrases and their basic rulesThere are five kinds of phrases: the coordinative phrases, the attribute phrases, the verb-object phrases, the complement phrases, and the subject-predicate phrases. Coordinative phrasesThe method used to coordinate equivalent elements in a coordinative phrase is to use conjunctions, but another method is not to use conjunctions. The nouns and pronouns sometimes use the conjunctions, sometimes they do not. 父 bais mother 母 pas father "parents" 鸡 kai chicken 和 ku/uengx and 鸭 eps duck "chicken and duck" Usually, the verbs and adjectives need conjunctions. 又打又骂 taeix beat loms and cas scold "beat and scold" 又酸又辣 fas sour hloeis and ghety hot "sour and hot" However, when the verbs and adjectives are doubled, there is no need for conjunctions. 往 hei go 往 hei go 返 luueng back 返 luueng back "go back and forth" 红 kiu green 红 kiu green 绿 ghaens red 绿 ghaens red "green and red" Attribute phrasesThe elements in the attribute phrases are not equivalent; one element is the head word, and the other element is the modifier that modifies the head word. Usually, the head word is a noun, a verb, or an adjective. Noun as the head wordUsually, the modifier is placed after the noun head word. Noun (the head word) + noun猪 aek meat 肉 bou pig "pork" 牛 hau horn 角 duis water buffalo "buffalo's horn" Noun + adjectivenoms water ghan cold "cold water" veengs shirt/top baen new "new shirt/top" The word "enyx" (小, small) is the exception where the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g., enyx small veengs shirt/top "kid's shirt (it also means brassiere)" enyx small duis water buffalo "calf (young water buffalo)" enyx small dziengx finger "little finger (pinkie)" Noun + verbfok place gaux sleep "a place for sleeping" daty bird bheny fly "(a) flying bird(s)" Noun + pronounpashlaus older brother hou my "my older brother" blongs house hauux that "that house" Number + classifier + noun (the head word)The modifier, which is constructed with a number and classifier, must be placed before the head word. fus three zuen CL aeudza old man "three old men" hlaus two hom CL dzuuem egg "two eggs" Attribute phrases influenced by ChineseLike Chinese, these modifiers are placed after the head word, and most of these words are loan words, e.g., Noun + noun (the head word) Dongxgoknaengsmiens China
people "Chinese people" Mismatch in the number of words between lines: 1 word(s) in line 1, 2 word(s) in line 2 (help); Adjective + noun (the head word) hiuxdius superior odex student "superior student" Verb + noun (the head word) goeisgiet resolve muixdhoeis problem "resolving (the) problem" Verb as the head wordThe modifiers that modify verbs are the adverbs, adjectives, pronouns, nouns, numbers, or verbs. Usually, the monosyllabic modifier is placed before the head word; the disyllabic/doubled adjective, the pronoun, or the number can be either placed before or after the head word, e.g., Adverb + verbda not oep love/like "don't like" bhaeis already lax eat "already ate" yous Don't rien say "don't say" naeus just buuen come "just came" ais not willing to lax eat "not willing to eat" Adjective + verbdzuuns quick rien say "(be)quick (to) say(it)" (it means out with it) hleny good lax eat good (to) eat" (it means delicious) gin hurry lax eat "busy eating" Noun + verbcai wood vuek make "made of wood" uuhaux tomorrow hei go "(will) go tomorrow" Verb + verb (the head word)oep like lax eat "like to eat" hei go dzok steal "go (and) steal" gaux lie down dzueis look "reading lying down" Disyllabic/doubled adjective + verb (the head word), or verb (the head word) + disyllabic/doubled adjectivedais dais fei= fei dais dais slow slow walk "慢慢走，walk slowly" (This is also used to say good bye.)
quick quick read "快快读，read quickly"
good good say "好好说，say (it) nicely"
dark do "漆黑做，do (it in) darkness" Pronoun + verb (the head word), or verb (the head word) + numberdhonghauux nyop = nyop dhonghauux like that sew "那样缝，sew like that"
how do "怎么做？How is it to be done?"
When go "何时走？When (is it time to) go?" Number + verb (the head word), or verb (the head word) + numberzuu gaeis hei = hei zuu gaeis one classifier go "去一趟，(make) a trip" (means to run an errand)
three classifier beat "打三下，beat (something) three times"
one classifier one classifier plant "一棵一棵地种，plant one by one"
one classifier one classifier eat "一口一口地吃，eat one (bite) at a time" Adjective as the head wordThe modifiers that modify adjectives are adjectives, adverbs, or pronouns. Usually, when the modifier is an adjective or adverb, the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g., Adjective + adjective (the head word)hleny good coem sharp "so sharp" reek bad coem sharp "not sharp" Adverb + adjective (the head word)duix most reek bad "worst" bhaeis already reek bad "already (gone) bad" Only few adverbs, like "dhat" (真, 很, really, very) or "baisias" (非常, 极, very much, most), are placed after the head word, e.g., Adjective (the head word) + adverbdzuuns quick dhat very "very quick" hleny good baisias very much "very good" Also, when the modifier is a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun or noun, the modifier is placed after the head word, e.g., Adjective (the head word) + demonstrative pronounvaet poor neix this "this poor" long big dhongneix like this "this big" peek high dhonghauux like that "that high" Adjective (the head word) + interrogative pronounbheeng wide ras? How? "How wide?" hloei many/much ras? how? "How many/much?" Adjective (the head word) + nounlong big nyiu bull "big as a bull" bheeng wide laengs sea "wide as the sea" The construction of the phrase above actually is: Adjective (the head word) + dhong/bhaen + noun, the word "dhong" (像, as, like) or "bhaen" (像, as, like) is omitted, e.g., long big (dhong) as nyiu bull "big as a bull" Verb-object phrasesThe verb is the head word, and the object can be a noun, a pronoun, a number, or a verb. Usually, the verb is placed before the object, e.g., Verb (the head word) + noun (object)lax eat tax rice "eat rice (the meaning is to eat)" dzueis look qias book "read book (the meaning is to read)" Verb (the head word) + pronoun (object)dheuu take hauux that "take that one" ngwaety call meuu you "(I'll) call you" bhiek carry (something) on shoulder meshes what? "carry what" Verb (the head word) + verb (object)dhas fear rien say "怕说，fears to say" auux dare vuuek do "dare to do (something)" Verb (the head word) + number (object)caty buy zuu one hom CL "buy one" lax eat fus three waeu CL "eat three bowls (of food)" Verbal adjective (the head word) + noun (object)Some verbal adjectives can act as the head word with the noun as the object, e.g., leis thin aeu people "(makes) people thin" ghweis fat aeu people "(makes) people fat" Complement phrasesThe complement phrases include both a verb-complement phrase and an adjective-complement phrase. Verb-complement phraseThe verb is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, or a number with a classifier. The verb is placed before the complement. Verb (the head word) + verb (complement)fei walk hluet go into "walk in" dheuu take buuen come "plan to come" Verb (the head word) + adjective (complement)lax eat kuuem full "ate (until) full (stuffed)" riemx fix hleny good "fixed well" roengx cook fui cooked "cooked thoroughly" Verb (the head word) + number (complement)fei walk zuu one guen CL "(make) a trip" (means to run an errand) fun run ba five hwan day ba five cop night "(it) rained five days and five nights" Verb (the head word) + noun (complement)In this case, the verb must be an intransitive verb, and the phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate. bhaeis already hlaeux die duis water buffalo he. ACCENT "The water buffalo already died." Adjective-complement phraseThe adjective is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, or a number with a classifier. The complement indicates the result of the head word, so usually the auxiliary word "dhaens" is placed between the complement and the head word. Adjective (the head word) + dhaens + verb (complement)kaeix cold dhaens as to nyan shiver "(so) cold as to shiiver" reek bad haeis smell dhaens as to asras who ruus all ais not willing to dheuu take "(so) foul smelling as to not one is willing to take (it)" Adjective (the head word) + dhaens + adjective (complement)gheuu thin dhaens as to ghau transparency "(so) thin as to be transparent" fui cooked dhaens as to ghaens red "(so) cooked (hot) as to become red" Adjective(the head word) + number (complement)long big fus three boux CL/year "three years older" hloei many zuu one hom CL "one more" peek high zuutom half ghwous head "a half-head taller" Adjective (the head word) + noun (complement)In this case, the adjective acts not as an attribute to the noun, but functions as expository to the noun. The phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate. Long big hwoet wind bhe！ ACCENT "The wind (is) strong!" Cok hurt bok stomach dhat very lo！ ACCENT "A stomachache! (very painful)" Subject-predicate phrasesThis kind of phrase is constructed by the subject and the predicate; usually, the subject is a noun or a pronoun, and the predicate is a verb or an adjective. Wenysnaeis no aeu people rien say na he reek. bad "No one said he (is) bad." Uengxtoengs everyone ruus all rien say gong stuff neix this fas. sour "Everyone (all) says this stuff (is) sour." Daty bird bheny fly lo. ACCENT "Birds have flown (away)." Na he buuen come lo. ACCENT "He has come." The construction of the subject-predicate phrase is the same as the attribute phrase.Usually, if there is an element, like an accent, an adverb, or a noun, that is either placed after or before the phrase, then it is a subject-predicate phrase. See the chart below:
Sentence construction and the basic rules在河边的房子 blongs house dhuus in/exist ngaeix edge/bank noms river hauux that "the house that (is) on the bank of the river" 我的哥哥和你的弟弟 pashlaus older brother hou my uengx and pasghueng younger brother meuu your my older brother and your younger brother The statements above are incomplete sentences. But, when we add some critical words, they become complete sentences to communicate a complete thought that makes sense to the listeners or readers, e.g., 那房子在那条河边 Blongs house hauux that dhuus in/exist ngaeix edge/bank noms river hauux. that "That house (is) on the bank of that river." 我的哥哥和你的弟弟都是工人 Pashlaus older brother hou my uengx and pasghueng younger brother meuu your ngan also gaengxnaengs. worker "My older brother and your younger brother (are) both workers." The chart below presents the grammatical elements that construct a sentence. These elements are a subject, a predicate, an object, a complement, an attribute and an adverbial phrase.
SubjectsThe subject is placed before the predicate; and either the nouns, pronouns, numbers, or phrases can be the subject. PredicatesThe predicate is placed after the subject to provide information about the subject. Usually, verbs or adjectives are the predicate; however, nouns, pronouns, and phrases can also be the predicate. Passive voiceIn the examples above, the subjects are the actors who act out the actions; however, the subjects can also receive the actions, which is called passive voice. Auxiliary words like "ia" or "ghoems" can be used to denote passive voice, e.g., 鸡被狐狸咬了 Kai Chicken ghoems by dauxmuty fox gaeny bite bhe. ACCENT "A chicken was bit by a fox." 那村子被火烧了 Bhous Village hauux that ghoems by fei fire cuis burn lo. ACCENT "That village was burned by fire." ObjectsAn object follows a verb. However, if the sentence is passive voice, the object can be placed before the verb phrase. Usually, a noun, pronoun or phrase can act as an object; sometimes, a number or verb can also be a subject, e.g., Double objects (with giving-receiving relation)The construction is Verb + person-object + lax/dheuu + thing-object, e.g., 母亲给她一条裙子 Baisdza Mother duuengx give na her lax auxiliary word zuu one ruet CL riens. skirt "Mother gave her a skirt." 我教你黎话 Hou I dun teach meuu you lax auxiliary word tun language Hlai. Li "I teach you the Li lauguage." 哥哥给弟弟一个荔枝 Pashlaus older brother duuengx give pasghueng younger brother dheuu auxiliary zuu one hom CL zuucoeis. litchi "The older brother gave (his) younger brother a litchi (a kind of fruit)." The auxiliary word "lax" can be replaced by the verb "duuengx" (给, give), then the construction becomes Verb + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, and the objects generally cannot be omitted, e.g., 母亲挑水给弟弟 Baisdza Mother caep carry noms water duuengx give pasghueng. younger brother "The mother carried water (to) give to the younger brother." 姐姐煮饭给妹妹 Hluuekkauus Older sister roengx cook tax rice duuengx give baisghueng. younger sister "The older sister cooked rice (to) give to the younger sister." Sometimes, the verb "duuengx" (给, for) can be placed both before the thing-object and the person-object, then the sentence construction becomes Verb + duuengx + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, e.g., 他给我衣服 Na He duuengx give veengs shirt/top duuengx give hou. me "He gave a shirt to me." 父亲不给我糖 Pasdza Father da not duuengx give nomstaengs sugar duuengx give dhes. me "(My) Father did not give me sugar." When both speaker and listener are clear what the thing-object is, or the subject itself is the given thing, the thing-object can be omitted, but the auxiliary needs to be kept, e.g., 你给他 Meuu You duuengx give na him dheuu. auxiliary word "You give it to him." 这把小刀给你 Zuu One pienx CL enyx small gas knife neix this duuengx give meuu you lax. auxiliary word "This small knife (was) given (to) you." 这只鸡给你 Zuu One lang CL kai chicken neix this duuengx give meuu you lax. auxiliary word "This chicken (was) given (to) you." Double objects (without giving-receiving relation)Although some verbs in double-object sentences do not imply the giving-receiving relation, the auxiliary word "lax", which indicates that the subject is "helping" the person-object, is still needed. e.g., Hou reengs meuu lax. I move you auxiliary word (help) "我帮你搬，I will help you (to) move." Meuu laix na lax. You plow him auxiliary word (help) "你帮他犁田，You help him (to) plow." Baisdza caep hluuekbaiskaux lax. Mother carry daughter auxiliary word (help) "母亲帮女儿挑，A mother helps her daughter carry (the stuff)." The auxiliary word "lax" can be followed by another object, e.g., Taeix dhes lax tax. Put me auxiliary word (help) rice "帮我打饭，Please help get me (some) rice." Hou caty meuu lax bheuucai. I buy you auxiliary word (help) vegetable "我帮你买菜，I'll help you buy (some) vegetables." Na rien na kueng poengs meuu lax ceengcai. He say he would water you auxiliary word (help) flower "他说他会帮你给花浇水，He said he would help you water the flowers." ComplementThere are three kinds of complements: sequential, directional, and quantitative complements. A complement goes after the verb or the adjective, in order to explain the sequence, degree, direction, or amount of the action. Usually, the verb, adjective, number, or phrase acts as a complement. Generally, a complement is placed after a verb, but if an object follows that verb, then the sequential complement and quantitative complement have to be placed after that object; the directional complement can either be placed after or before that object, e.g., Sequential complementDzax ghoems taeix hlaeux bhe. Snake by hit die accent "蛇被打死了，The snake was beaten to death by (someone)."
I already eat full accent "我已经吃饱了，I have already eaten (rice) and am full."
He eat rice full accent "他吃饱饭了，He ate and is full." If the sequential complement is a phrase, the prepositional word "dhaens" is needed to be placed before the phrase, e.g., Na gwaeng dhaens tuuen nomswoms. He pull preposition go out sweat "他拉到出汗，He pulled until he sweat."
Water buffalo run preposition edge/bank river that "水牛跑到那河边，The water buffalo ran to the bank of that river."
shirt/top this new preposition whoever also want wear "这衣服新到谁都想穿，This shirt is so new that everyone wants to wear it." Directional complementThe directional complement is constructed by a verb + a directional verb, e.g.,
a. Directional complement without an object Most directional complements can act as a complement after alone verb, e.g., Na qieus buuen bhe. He bring come accent "他拿来了，He brought something here."
Water buffalo run go accent "水牛跑去了，The water buffalo ran (away)."
Old man come go back accent "老人回来了，The old man came back."
Everyone carry go come back accent "大家挑回去了，Everyone carried (something) back (home)."
He is not willing to come down down accent "他不愿意走下来吧，He is not willing to come down."
He run go out accent of question "他跑出来了吗？Did he run out (from there)?" b. Directional complement with an object These three directional verbs, "dhuas", "kaen", and "hluet", need an object to go after them, e.g., Tuas zuens dhuas zuu dhanx dhaeix. Rabbit jump over one classifier stream "兔子跳过一条小沟，The rabbit jumped over a stream."
Everyone carry on shoulders go up mountain that "大家抬到那山上，Everyone shouldered (something) up that mountain."
Mouse already run go into hole accent "老鼠已经跑进洞，The mouse already ran into the hole." Quantitative complementThe quantitative complement, which is constructed by either (number + verbal classifier), or (number + time classifier), usually goes after a verb, sometimes goes after an adjective, e.g., a. Verb + (number + verbal classifier) Hou uengx meuu hei zuu gaeis. I and you go one classifier "我和你去一趟，I and you (can) go (there)."
Chicken already crow three classifier accent "鸡已经啼三遍了，The rooster has already crowed three times." b. Verb + (number + time classifier) Fa bhaeis o zuu bhoux he. We already learn one year/classifier accent "我们已经学一年了，We (have) already studied for one year."
He already stay three day accent "他已经住三天了，He (has) already stayed (for) three days."
He go back home have two month accent "他回家有两个月了，He has been home for two months now." c. Adjective + (number + classifier) Blongs neix peek dhuas blongs hauux zuugit. House this high/tall than house that a little bit "这房子比那房子高一点，This house (is just) a little bit taller than that house."
Bowl this more three classifier "这碗多三个，This bowl (has) three extra (ones)." AttributeThe attribute is to modify or to define the subject or object, in order to indicate the characteristics, amount, or possession. Usually, the attribute, which can be an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, a number, a verb, or different kinds of phrases, is placed after the head word, except when a number acts as an attribute, the number must be placed before the head word, e.g., Noun (head word) + noun (attribute)aek duis meat water buffalo "牛肉，beef"
skin banana "香蕉皮，banana peel"
fruit litchi "荔枝果，litchi (fruit)"
egg chicken "鸡蛋，chicken egg"
He know say/speak language/word Li "他会说黎话，He knows(how to) speak the Li's language."
This is leaf tree "这是树叶，This is a tree's leaf." Noun (head word) + adjective (attribute)tau loek pot black "黑锅，black pot"
one classifier shirt/top white "一件白上衣，one white shirt"
water this water cold "这水是冷水，This water (is) cold water." Noun (head word) + pronoun (attribute)Gha Hlai zaux caqias veengzauus bhe. We Li people have script self accent "咱们黎族有自己的文字了，We, Li people, have our own script."
Older sister his/her is going to go to/toward Sanya "他姐姐要去三亚，His older sister is going to go to Sanya." Number (attribute) + noun (head word)Zuu zuen aeu dhuus blongs max. One classifier man in house that "一个人在那边房子，A man (is) in that house."
Two classifier water buffalo this fat very very "这两头牛肥极了，These two water buffalos (are) very, very fat." Noun (head word) + verb (attribute)Dhuus max wenysnaeis fok gaux. In/at there no place lie down "在那里没有地方睡，At that place, (there is) no place to sleep."
Even wild boar run also shoot right "连跑的野猪也射中，He shot even a running wild boar right on."
This stuff eat our "这是我们吃的东西，This (is) our food ." Noun (head word) + phrase (attribute)veengs dhuus blongs hauux shirt/top in house that "在那房子的衣服，the shirt (that is) in that house"
girl just come that "那位刚来的姑娘，that girl (who) just came"
one classifier water buffalo eat grass full "一只吃饱草的水牛，a water buffalo (that) eats grass (until it's) full"
time you come that "你来的那个时候，that time (when) you came" AdverbialThe adverbial modifies or defines verbs or adjectives, in order to indicate the why, how, when, and where of the verb, or the degree of the adjective. Most often it is an adverb, an adjective, or a verb that acts as an adverbial; sometimes, a noun, a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun, a number, and various phrases can also be adverbials. Adverbials can either be placed before or after the verb or adjective. e.g., Adverbs as adverbialsMost adverbs are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g., Na oms da buuen zo. He still not come accent "他还没来呢，He has not come (yet)."
Today sky mosthot accent "今天天气很热啊，Today the weather (is) very hot."
Time eat rice don't say/speak word "吃饭时别说话！It is eating time, don't talk!"
One classifier man this not beautiful "这个人不漂亮！This person (is) not beautiful." Only fewadverbs, like "dhat", "luueng", "baisias" and "dhatdhat", are placed after the verb or adjective, e.g., Na buuen dhat. He come really "他真的来了，He really came."
He do back "他重新做，He (is) re-doing (it)."
Stuff this good really "这东西真好，This is really good stuff."
Sugarcane this sweet very "这甘蔗非常甜，This sugarcane (is) very sweet." Adjectives as adverbialsMost adjectives are placed before verb or adjective head words. Only a few adjectives, like "hleny" (好, good/so), and "reek" (坏, bad/not so), can be adverbials to modify adjective head words, e.g., reek coem bad/not so sharp "不锋利，not so sharp"
Long knife this good/so sharp accent! "这把刀好快啊！This knife is (so) sharp!"
Slow walk accent, old lady! "慢走啊，老大娘，Slow(ly) walk, (lady/old woman)."
You quick come accent "你快来吧，(You) quick(ly) come." If an adjective is doubled, it can be placed after the verb, e.g., Meuu buuen dzuunsdzuuns bhe！ You come quick quick accent "你快快来吧，(You) come double quick." Verbs as adverbialsWhen verbs act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial verbs are placed before that head word, e.g., Na ngais rien. He/she cry say "她哭着说，She said (it while) crying."
You steal/secretly look what "你偷看什么？What are you secretly looking at?"
He like eat coconut "他爱吃椰子，He likes to eat coconuts." Nouns as adverbialsWhen nouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial nouns are placed before that head word, e.g., Neix man cai vuek This is tree make "这是木制的，This is made of wood."
You tomorrow go question accent "你明天去吗？Are you going tomorrow?" Pronouns as adverbialsWhen pronouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial pronouns can either be placed before or after that head word, e.g., Na dhongneix rien. = Na rien dhongneix. He like this say = He say like this "他这样说，He said (it) like this."
work this how do = work this do how "这活儿怎样做？How (is) this work done?"
When arrive = arrive when "何时到？When (will he) arrive?" However, when pronouns act as adverbials to modify a head word that is an adjective, the adverbial pronouns are only placed after that head word, e.g., Gom neix bheeng dhonghauux. Region this wide/vast like that/so "这地方那么宽，This region (is) so vast."
One classififer man this good/kind like that/so "这个人那么好，This man (is) so good."
One classififer rope this long how? "这一条绳子有多长？How long (is) this rope?" Prepositional phrases as adverbialsWhen a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "ia" (被, by) or "dheuu" (被, by), act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies a head word that is a verb, and must be placed before that head word, e.g., Ia ba gaenys by dog bite "被狗咬，bit by a dog"
by him hit "被他打，hit by him" When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "tuuen" (从, by), "dhuus" (在, in/at), "ku" (对, to), "uengx" (和, and),or "nyuek" (和, and) act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies the head word that is a verb, and must be placed either before or after that head word, e.g., tuuen max zuu dhanx guen kaen hwous From that one classifier road go up mountain "从这一条路上山，by that road (one can) go up the mountain"
drop from on tree "从树上掉下来，drop from the tree"
at house/home wait you = wait you at house/home "在家等你，(I'll) wait for you at home."
to him say = say to him "对他说，say to him"
With you go = go with you "同你去，(I'll) go with you."
You play with/and him = You with/and him play "你和他玩，You play with him." Some prepositions, like "bhi" (比, than/compare), "dhuas" (过, than), "dhong" (同/像/如, same/be like), or "bhaen" (像, be like), have nouns as adverbials to modify the adjective head word, of which some are placed before that head word, others after, and still others either before or after, e.g., Before the adjective head word: Meuu bhi dhes peek. You than/compare me tall "你比我高，You (are) taller than me." After the adjective head word: Meuu peek dhuas na. You tall than him "你高过他，You (are) taller than him."
Dog big than cat "狗大过猫，A dog (is) bigger than a cat." Before or after the adjective head word: hloek bhaen laengs deep like/as sea "像海一样深，as deep as the sea."
small like/as needle "像针一样小，as small as a needle."
Chicken this like/as duck fat = Chicken this fat as duck "这只鸡像鸭一样肥，This chicken (is) as fat as (a) duck." Sentence patterns and typesSentence patterns and their basic rulesSimple sentenceThe simple sentence includes subject-predicate sentence, no subject sentence, one word sentence, e.g., Subject-predicate sentencesFas fun lo. sky rain accent "天要下雨了，It's going to rain."
He go accent "他去了，He went."
Child laugh accent "小孩笑了，(The) child(ren) laughed." The simple sentences above include two elements: subjects and predicates, however, other elements like objects, complements, or adverbials can be included, e.g., (subject + predicate + object) Hou lax tax. I eat rice "我吃饭，I eat rice." (subject + predicate + complement) Na qieus buuen bhe. He bring come accent "他拿来了，He brought (it with him)." (subject + adverbial + predicate + complement) Enyxlauux bhaeis fei hluet blongs. Child already walk into house "小孩走进屋子，(The) child(ren) walked into the house." No subject sentencesThis simple sentences look like inverted sentences, e.g., Tuut dhoei bhe. Break rope accent "断绳了，The rope (is) broken."
Many people really/very "人真多，(There are) so many people."
Die fish accent "鱼死了，The fish died." One word sentenceAsras？ Who？ "谁？Who?" Ahyo! Oh my! "哎哟！Oh my!" A: "Meuu kweis da kweis？" B: "Kweis." You be willing to NEG be willing to be willing to A: 'Are you willing (or) not willing?' B: '(Yes, I am) willing.' A: 你愿意不愿意？B:愿意 Compound sentencesThere are two kinds of compound sentences; one is a coordinate compound sentence, the other is a subordinate compound sentence, e.g., Coordinate compound sentencesThe linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: parallel, progressive, and optional. The parallel relationshipUsually, there is no need of conjunctions between clauses. Hou kweis hei kuishuix, na kweis hei ang. I will go have a meeting he will go field "我要去开会，他要去山栏地，I'm going to a meeting, he's going to the field."
Fruit banana I also eat auxiliary past tense zuuyunx hou ngan lax dhuas. coconut I also eat auxiliary past tense "香蕉我吃过，椰子我也吃过，I've eaten bananas, and I have also eaten coconuts."
He/she know how to do shirt do skirt hoen vuek ang vuek dax. know how to do hilly field do plain field "她能做衣服做裙子，能耕田种地，She can make shirts and skirts, (she also) can work (in) hilly (and) plain fields." The progressive relationshipThe conjunction words that express a progressive relationship between clauses are "loms" (又, still),"oms" (还, 却, yet),"ruus" (都, all), "koms" (连, even/also), and their similar phrases such as "dacaux…koms/uuloms…"(不但...而且...，not only... but also...), e.g., Fas bhaeis cop, na loms da beuu. Sky already late he still not come back "天已经晚了，他还不回来，It was late, and he still (had) not come back."
Sky yet not bright, he already go field accent "天尚未亮，他已经去田里了，It was not yet the break of dawn, and he had already gone to the field."
You are Han, we are Li, we all are people China "你们是汉族，我们是黎族，咱们都是中国人，You are Han, we are Li, we are all Chinese."
He know how to speak language/word Li kueng rien koms tun Moei. know how to speak also/even language/word Han "他会说黎话，也会说汉话，He knows how to speak the Li language, also knows how to speak the Han language."
I not only read finished, but also write finished "我不仅看完了，而且写完了，Not only did I finish reading, but I also finished writing." c. The optional relationship The conjunction words that express an optional relationship between clauses are "cuus" (或, or), "cas" (或, or), "casnus" (或, or), "cuusnaus" (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g., Pashlaus meuu buuen, cas pasghueng meuu buuen. Old brother your come, or younger brother your come "你哥哥来，还是你弟弟来，(Either) your older brother (will) come, or your younger brother (will) come."
Eat potato or eat rice "吃白薯还是米饭？Do you eat potatoes or rice?"
You say/tell to him, or say/tell to me "你对他说，或者告诉我，You tell him, or tell me." Subordinate compound sentencesThe linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are not equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: transitional, conditional, and causal. The transitional relationshipUsually, the first clause is the subordinate clause, and the latter one is the major clause. The conjunction words that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), "tus" (但是, but), e.g., Uupans hou hei zok na, tom na hei qix. Yesterday I go to him, but he go street "昨天我到他家去，但是他已经上街去了，Yesterday I went to (find) him (at his house), but he had already hit the streets."
She want sing a song, but fear shame "她想唱歌，又怕害羞，She wants to sing, but fears embarrassment."
Want learn then learn well, otherwise go back home "要学就真正地学，不然就回家去，(If you) want to learn, then learn (it) well, otherwise, go back home." The conditional relationshipUsually, the first clause is the subordinate clause indicating the condition, and the latter one is the major clause expressing the consequence. The conjunction words that express a conditional relationship are "laeis" (如果, if), "dalunx" (无论, no matter what), e.g., Dalunx na rien dhongras, hou ngan hei. no matter what he say how, I also go "不管他怎样说，我都去，No matter what he says, I'll also go."
If he not come, I then go find him "如果他不来，我就去找他，If he doesn't come, then I'll go find him."
If have/there is rice, I then eat "如果有饭，我就吃，If there is rice, then I (will) eat."
If he agree, you then tell to me accent "如果他答应，你就告诉我吧，If he agrees, then (you) tell me." Sometimes, the conditional sentence does not need a conjunction word, e.g., Tuuen kaux vuek gong, nge zaux gan zaux jien. Out strength do work, must have money have money "努力工作，一定会有金钱，(If you) use strength to work, (you) will have money." The causal relationshipUsually, the first clause is the major clause indicating the result, and the latter one is the subordinate clause expressing the cause. The conjunction words that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g.,
Sky rain don't go otherwise gain/get sickness "天下雨了，别去，不然要得病，It's raining, don't go, otherwise (you'll) get sick."
I not go because I sick accent "我不去，因为我病了，I'm not going because I'm sick."
I come back take rope, because break totally "我回来拿绳子，因为全断了，I came back to take a rope, because (my rope is) totally broken." Sometimes, the word "hans" also can be used in a conditional clause, e.g., Jieng, hans hloei ges fa ngan duuengx. Success, no matter what much price/cost we also give "能成功的话，那么多少钱我们都给，(Achieve) success, no matter how much it costs." When the loan words "ienxuis…dosdzis"are used to present the cause-result relationship, the causal clause is placed before the result clause, e.g., Ienxuis boux neix fas raenx, dosdzis daenslieng aiszangs peek. Because year this sky dry, so produce not so high "因为今年天旱，所以产量不太高，Because this year it (is) dry, (so) the produce (is) not so much." Compressed compound sentencesIn view of idea expressed, the compressed sentence is a compound sentence; in view of construction, it is a simple sentence. Dhes ghais meuu vuek meshes goms vuek meshes. I tell you do what then do what "我叫你做什么就做什么，Whatever I tell you to do, do (it)."
I want say but fear "我想说又害怕，I want to speak but (I) fear (to say it)."
He more... think more... happy "他越想越高兴，The more he thinks the more happy he is."
Pig this more... feed more... fat "这只猪越喂越肥，The more this pig is fed the fatter it is."
He more... do more... fast "他越做越快，The more he works the faster he gets/becomes."
He more... come more... many "人越来越多，The people coming (are) more and more." Sentence types and their basic rulesAccording to the function and mood, Hlai sentences can be classified as declarative sentences, interrogative sentences, imperative sentences, and exclamatory sentences. Declarative sentenceAffirmative sentenceHou kweis hei ang. I will go hilly field "我要去山栏地，I will go to the hilly field."
This is shirt/top her/his "这是他/她的衣服，This is her/his shirt/top." Sometimes, the linking verb is omitted, e.g., Neix veengs na. This shirt/top her/his "这是他/她的衣服，This (is) her/his shirt/top." Negative sentenceNeix ghwaix veengs na. This is not shirt/top her/his "这不是他/她的衣服，This is not her/his shirt."
He not come accent "他还没来呢，He has not come yet." Interrogative sentenceUsing interrogative pronounsThere are several interrogative pronouns that are used: "uuras/asras" (谁, who?), "meshes" (什么, what?), "dhongras" (怎样, how?), "ras" (哪，如何, where? which? how?), "qiras" (何时, when?), and "hloeiras" (多少, How much/many?), e.g., Neix veengs asras? This shirt/top who? "这是谁的衣服，Whose shirt is this?"
Who with me go? "谁跟我去？Who(will) go with me?"
This is what? "这是什么？What is this?"
Do how just right? "怎么样做才好？How should it be done, so that it will be done right?"
You go to/toward where? "你去哪儿？Where are you heading?"
He when come? "他何时来？When (will) he come?"
Have how many classifier sick "有几个病号？How many (people) are sick?" Using interrogative accent wordsThese questions require an answer: "Yes or no". Ghwaix na bas? Is not him accent "不是他吧？It is not him, right?"
This belong to you accent "这是你的吗？Does this belong to you?"
You already eat rice accent "你已经吃过饭了吗？Did you already eat (rice)?" (There are several more words used in the interrogative mood, so please see the section on accented words.) Using negation words ("da")Meuu kweis hei da? You will go NEG? "你要去吗？Won't you go?"
You be willing to NEG? "你愿意吗？Aren't you willing?"
You want see movie NEG? "你要看电影吗？Don't you want to see a movie?"
Stuff this good NEG? "这东西好吗？Isn't this stuff good?" The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added before the negative words "da" to express a question, e.g., Meuu qieng dheuu cuus da? You want take or not? "你想拿吗？Do you want to take (it) or not?"
You already eat or not? "你已经吃了吗？Have you already eaten or not?"
shirt/top this good or not? "这件衣服好吗？Is this shirt/top good or not?" Using conjunction words ("cuus/cas")The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g., Meuu dheuu cuus ais? You want or don't want? "你要不要？Do you want (it) or not?"
We carry with hands or carry on shoulders? "我们抬还是扛？Should we carry (it) with (our) hands or on (our) shoulders?"
Genuine/real/true or false/fake? "真的还是假的？Are you telling the truth, or did you make it up?" Another related conjunction word "cuusnaus/casnus" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g., Na hei cuusnaus hou hei？ He go or I go? "他去还是我去？Will he go or should I go?" Imperative sentenceWhen a speaker demonstrates a request or a command, usually he will express it with an accent. When the subject is omitted, it can become a one word sentence, e.g., Buuen! Come "来！Come！"
tomorrow pick litchi (fruit) accent "明天摘荔枝吧！Tomorrow let's (finish) pick(ing) litchi (=a kind of fruit)!"
Everyone quickly come accent "大家快来吧！Everyone, come quickly!" (There are several more words used in the imperative mood, so please see the section on accented words.) When a speaker expresses a prohibition, usually the adverbial word "yous" (别, don't) is used. Yous vuek! Don't do "别做！Quit doing that!" Exclamatory sentenceThere are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aidzo", "aiho", "euu", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feelings. An accented word in one word sentenceEuu! Hauux bhe! Yes! That is (it)! "嗯！是！Yes! That's it!"
Oh my! How do just/then good "哎哟！怎么做才好？Oh my! What's a good way to do this?" An accented word follows one word or one phraseCok ho! Pain accent "疼啊！Ouch!"
good/so many accent "好多啊！So many!" An accented word at the end of a sentenceAidzo! Keuuhwoek ho! Oh my! Poor accent "哎哟！可惜啊！Oh (my)! Poor (guy)!"
Pot already break accent "锅已经破了！The pot broke!"
Vegetable this good eat accent "这菜好吃啊！This vegetable (=dish) (is) good to eat (=delicious)!"
Water this cold accent "这水凉啊！This water is cold!" (There are several more words used in the exclamatory mood, so please see the section on accented words.) Influence of Chinese grammarDue to the frequent contacts made between the Li (黎族) and the Han (汉族) over a relatively lengthy stretch of time, the Hlai language has been influenced by the Chinese language and its grammar. As previously mentioned, the Hlai counting system for dates, ordinal numbers, and measurements have been influenced by Chinese. In this chapter, the Chinese influence in Hlai's word order of attribute phrases, verb-object-complement phrases, and interrogative sentences is discussed. Attribute phrasesNouns act as head words, and the attribute word is a number. Natively, the number should be placed before the head word. But, due to the Chinese influence, the number can be placed after the head word, e.g.,
When nouns act as head words, and the attribute words are demonstrative pronouns and numbers, the number is placed before the head word and the demonstrative pronoun after the head word. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order has become more like the word order in Chinese, e.g.,
When two nouns are placed together as an attribute phrase, the front noun is the head word, and the back one the attribute word. However, due to Chinese influence, the word order can be changed, but only when applied to loan word attribute phrases, e.g.,
Another kind of attribute phrase is where the noun is the head word and the adjective is the attribute word. When the words in the phrase are all loan words, the word order follows the Chinese one, e.g., 新 dienx new 中国 Dongxgok China "new China" 新 dienx new 裙子 gun skirt "new skirt" 大 dhuax big 救星 giuscex savior "great savior" However, when the words in the phrase are not all loanwords, the adjective is placed after the noun, e.g., 新中国 Dongxgok China baen new "new China" 这是新裙子 neix DEM.this man is gun skirt baen. new "This is a new skirt." 大救星 giuscex savior long big "great savior" Verb-object-complement phrasesWhen verbs act as head words, the word order is verb-object-complement. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order, verb-complement-object has also been adopted, e.g.,
Interrogative sentencesThe native ways to denote a question in the Hlai language are using interrogative pronouns, interrogative accents, or placing the negation word da at the end of a sentence. However, due to Chinese influence, a new word order has appeared, which is, verb (head word) + negation + verb, e.g., 你 Meuu You 去 hei go 不 da NEG 去？ hei? go "Are you going?" The possessive auxiliary word gaeisThe native possessive auxiliary word in Hlai is guu. In the Chinese language, the possessive auxiliary word is gaeis, and both its usage and function have been imputed into the Hlai language, e.g., 北京 Bhakgengs Beijing 的 gaeis AUX.POSS 颐和园 Ihwashueis the name of emperor's Summer Palace "Beijing's Summer Palace" 海南 Haeisnaems Hainan 的 gaeis AUX.POSS 乐东 Lokdhongs Ledong 县 gwaeis township "Hainan's Ledong township" 早晨 gaeusdhom morning 的 gaeis AUX.POSS 太阳 cahwan sun "the morning's sun" References
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