平權行動的性質因地而異,其範圍從硬性配額到僅為針對性鼓勵增加參與度。一些國家使用配額制度,為特定群體的成員保留一定比例的政府職位、政治職位和入學名額。印度保留政策就是一例。在其他不使用配額的司法管轄區,則給予少數群體成員在選拔過程中優先權或特別考量。在美國,最初透過行政命令實施的平權行動,本意是"選拔時不考慮種族",但在大學招生中卻廣泛使用優惠性待遇(即大學可將種族作為一個有利因素)。這種做法在2003年的聯邦最高法院判例格魯特訴布林格案中被裁定合憲。直到2023年才在《公平入學學生組織訴哈佛大學案(英语:Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard)》的裁定中遭到推翻。[9]
有數項不同的研究針對平權行動在女性的影響進行研究。研究人員Fidan Ana Kurtulus(2012年)在她對1973-2003年間平權行動與少數族裔和女性職業晉升的回顧中指出,平權行動在提升黑人、西班牙裔和白人女性進入管理、專業和技術職位方面的影響,主要發生在1970年代和1980年代初期。在此期間,那些與政府締約的公司,因為必須遵守平權法案的規定,其僱用和晉升女性與少數族裔的速度,比沒與政府締約的公司快得多。但平權行動的正面影響在1980年代末期完全消失,Kurtulus認為這可能是因為隆納·雷根總統上任後在平權行動政策的轉變,導致女性和少數族裔在晉升至高階職位上的速度減緩。在研究所涵蓋的三十年間,具有聯邦承包商身份的公司平均讓白人女性在專業職位中的佔比增加0.183個百分點(即9.3%),而讓黑人女性的佔比增加0.052個百分點(即3.9%)。具有聯邦承包商身份的公司也讓西班牙裔女性和黑人男性在技術職位中的佔比分別平均增加0.058個百分點和0.109個百分點(即7.7%和4.2%)。這些數據顯示平權行動對研究期間內女性和少數族裔的整體職業發展趨勢達成實質性的貢獻。[30]一項針對多項學術研究,特別是亞洲研究的再分析,探討影響大眾對女性平權行動計畫支持度的四個主要因素:性別、政治因素、心理因素和社會結構。研究人員Sunhee Kim及Seoyong Kim(2014年)提出:"平權行動既能糾正現有的不公平待遇,也能給予女性未來平等的機會。[31]
保守派團體從1990年代開始,日益主張大學配額被用於非法種族歧視,並發起多起訴訟以阻止這些做法。[132]美國最高法院於2003年所做的一項關於高等教育平權行動的裁決(《格魯特訴伯林格案》,539 US 244 – 最高法院2003年)允許教育機構在錄取學生時將種族作為一個考量因素。[133]美國最高法院於2014年裁定"各州可選擇禁止在政府決策中考量種族優惠"。當時的奧克拉荷馬州、新罕布夏州、亞利桑那州、科羅拉多州、內布拉斯加州、密西根州、佛羅里達州、華盛頓州和加州這八個州已經禁止平權行動。[131]最高法院於2023年6月29日在《公平入學學生組織訴哈佛大學案》中以6比2的裁決,判定在大學招生中用到種族的考量,違反《美國憲法第十四修正案》的平等保護條款。[134]
研究人員安德魯·J·希爾(Andrew J. Hill)在2017年發現平權行動禁令導致少數族裔學生完成四年制科學、技術、工程和數學(參見理工科(STEM))學位的比例下降。他認為這顯示錯配假說是並無根據,並稱這證明平權行動在"某些情況下"可能有效,例如在鼓勵更多少數族裔參與理工科方面。[159]研究人員扎卡里·布利默(Zachary Bleemer)於2020年發現,加州的平權行動禁令(《1996年加州第209號提案》)導致24至34歲在理工產業工作的代表性不足,少數族裔的年平均工資下降5%,尤其是西班牙裔受到最大的影響。[160][17]
在2007年,聖地牙哥大學法學教授、同時也是美國民權委員會(英语:United States Commission on Civil Rights)成員的蓋爾·赫里奧特(英语:Gail Heriot),討論支持"錯配"在法律課程中存在的證據。她引用理察·桑德爾的一項研究報告,報告指出在有平權行動的情況下,黑人律師比沒平權行動時減少7.9%。[161]桑德爾認為"錯配"表示黑人學生更有可能從法學院退學,或是未能通過律師資格考試。[162]桑德爾關於"錯配"的論文遭到包括於耶魯大學任教的伊恩·艾爾斯(英语:Ian Ayres)和理查德·布魯克斯(Richard Brooks)在內的幾位法學教授的批評,他們認為取消平權行動實際上會導致黑人律師人數減少12.7%。[163]此外,他們認為就讀排名更高大學的學生表現優於那些沒有就讀的學生。研究人員傑西·羅思斯坦(英语:Jesse Rothstein)和阿爾伯特·H·尹(Albert H. Yoon)在2008年進行的一項研究,稱桑德爾的結果是"貌似合理",但表示取消平權行動將"導致所有法學院的黑人入學人數下降63%,而在精英法學院則下降90%"。他們駁斥"錯配理論",結論是"不能可靠地援引錯配效應來論證平權行動沒有好處"。[164]研究人員彼得·阿爾奇迪亞科諾(英语:Peter Arcidiacono)和邁克爾·洛芬海姆(Michael Lovenheim)在2016年對過往研究報告進行回顧,他們認為更多非裔美國人學生就讀競爭力較低的學校,將顯著提高他們首次嘗試美國州律師公會資格考試的通過率,但警告說,這種改善可能會因法學院入學人數的減少而抵消。[165]
^Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. Racism Without Racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States 4th. Rowman & Littlefield. 2014: 101–102. ISBN 978-1-4422-2055-3.
^Gallagher, Charles A. Color-Blind Privilege: The Social and Political Functions of Erasing the Color Line in Post Race America. Race, Gender & Class. 2003, 10 (4): 22–37. JSTOR 41675099.
^Fullinwider, Robert. Affirmative Action. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. 2018-04-09 [2022-10-30]. (原始内容存档于2022-03-12). When [affirmative-action] steps involve preferential selection—selection on the basis of race, gender, or ethnicity—affirmative action generates intense controversy.已忽略未知参数|orig-date= (帮助)
^Gururaj, Suchitra; Somers, Patricia; Fry, Jessica; Watson, Del; Cicero, Francesca; Morosini, Marilia; Zamora, Jennifer. Affirmative action policy: Inclusion, exclusion, and the global public good. Policy Futures in Education. January 2021, 19 (1): 63–83. S2CID 225376002. doi:10.1177/1478210320940139. hdl:10923/19826.
^Morgenroth, Thekla; Ryan, Michelle K. Quotas and affirmative action: U nderstanding group-based outcomes and attitudes. Social and Personality Psychology Compass. March 2018, 12 (3). doi:10.1111/spc3.12374. hdl:10871/31150.
^Twale, Darla J.; Douvanis, Costas J.; Sekula, Francis J. Affirmative action strategies and professional schools: case illustrations of examplary programs. Higher Education. September 1992, 24 (2): 177–191. doi:10.1007/BF00129440.
^Rothman, Stanley; Lipset, S. M.; Nevitte, Neil. Diversity and affirmative action: The state of campus opinion. Academic Questions. December 2002, 15 (4): 52–66. doi:10.1007/s12129-002-1045-8 (不活跃 2025-07-11). ProQuest603595788.
^Fidan Ana Kurtulus, "Affirmative Action and the Occupational Advancement of Minorities and Women During 1973–2003", Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society (2012) 51#2 pp 213–246. online
^Franchi, V. The racialization of affirmative action in organizational discourses: A case study of symbolic racism in post-apartheid South Africa. International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 2003, 27 (2): 157–187. doi:10.1016/S0147-1767(02)00091-3.
^Shai, Lerato; Molefinyana, Comfort; Quinot, Geo. Public Procurement in the Context of Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment (BBBEE) in South Africa—Lessons Learned for Sustainable Public Procurement. Sustainability. 2019-12-13, 11 (24): 7164. ISSN 2071-1050. doi:10.3390/su11247164.
^Alon, Sigal. The Diversity Dividends of a Need-blind and Color-blind Affirmative Action Policy. Social Science Research. 2011, 40 (6): 1494–1505. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.05.005.
^Ghorbal, Karim. Esencia colonial de una política contemporánea: Por un enfoque fanoniano de la discriminación positiva en Francia. Culture & History Digital Journal. 2015, 4 (2): e016. doi:10.3989/chdj.2015.016.
^Jean-Pierre Steinhofer, "Beur ou ordinaire", Armée d'ajourd'hui, 1991.
^Eeckhout, Laetitia Van. Le Plan Sarkozy. Le Monde. 2008-12-17 [2012-04-11].
^Susanne Vieth-Entus (29. December 2008): "Sozialquote: Berliner Gymnasien sollen mehr Schüler aus armen Familien aufnehmen". Der Tagesspiegel
^Martin Klesmann (23 February 2009). "'Kinder aus Neukölln würden sich nicht integrieren lassen' – Ein Politiker und ein Schulleiter streiten über Sozialquoten an Gymnasien". Berliner Zeitung
^Seierstad, Cathrine; Opsahl, Tore. For the few not the many? The effects of affirmative action on presence, prominence, and social capital of women directors in Norway. Scandinavian Journal of Management. March 2011, 27 (1): 44–54. doi:10.1016/j.scaman.2010.10.002.
^Eckbo, B. Espen; Nygaard, Knut; Thorburn, Karin S. Valuation effects of Norway's board gender-quota law revisited. Management Science. 18 August 2021, 68 (6): 4112–4134. doi:10.1287/mnsc.2021.4031. hdl:11250/3046314.
^Stites, Richard. Zhenotdel: Bolshevism and Russian Women, 1917–1930. Russian History. 1976, 3 (1): 174–193. JSTOR 24649711. doi:10.1163/187633176X00107. These egalitarian and affirmative action movements—in other words, early "communism"—receive short shrift in most Western studies...
^Patterson, Michelle Jane. Red 'Teaspoons of Charity': Zhenotdel, Russian Women, and the Communist Party, 1919–1930 (学位论文). 2012-02-29. hdl:1807/32159.
^Nicolaïdis, Kalypso; Sebe, Berny; Maas, Gabrielle. Echoes of Empire: Memory, Identity and Colonial Legacies. Bloomsbury Publishing. 2014-12-23. ISBN 978-0-85773-896-7 –通过Google Books(英语). Elsewhere in the USSR, the late 1930s and the outbreak of World War II also saw some significant changes: elements of korenizatsiya were phased out... the Russians were officially anointed as the 'elder brothers' of the Soviet family of nations, whilst among historians Tsarist imperialism was rehabilitated as having had a 'progressive significance'
^Aditi Sangal, Adrienne Vogt, Sydney Kashiwagi, Matt Meyer and Tori B. Powell. June 29, 2023 Supreme Court affirmative action decision. CNN. 2023-06-30 [2023-07-02]. (原始内容存档于2023-07-02). The Supreme Court ruled Thursday that colleges and universities can no longer take race into consideration as a specific basis in admissions — a landmark decision that overturns long-standing precedent that has benefited Black and Latino students in higher education. [...] The Supreme Court ruled Thursday that colleges and universities can no longer take race into consideration as a specific basis in admissions — a landmark decision that overturns long-standing precedent that has benefited Black and Latino students in higher education.
^Deliso, Meredith. Students react to landmark Supreme Court affirmative action decision. ABC News. 2023-06-29 [July 2, 2023]. (原始内容存档于2023-07-02). Students debated the fairness of a landmark Supreme Court decision on Thursday that sets new limits on race as a factor in admissions to public and private colleges and universities.
^U.S. Supreme Court Issues Landmark SFFA College Affirmative Action Decision. jdsupra.com. JDSUPRA. June 29, 2023 [2023-07-02]. (原始内容存档于July 2, 2023). On June 29, 2023, the U.S. Supreme Court issued a landmark decision on the use of race as a factor in collegiate admissions in two cases brought by Students for Fair Admissions (SFFA).
^Sher, George, "Preferential Hiring", in Tom Regan (ed.), Just Business: New Introductory Essays in Business Ethics, Philadelphia, Temple University Press, 1983, p. 40.
^Hill, Andrew J. State affirmative action bans and STEM degree completions. Economics of Education Review. 1 April 2017, 57: 31–40. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2017.01.003.
^Bleemer, Zachary. Affirmative Action, Mismatch, and Economic Mobility after California's Proposition 209 (学位论文). 2020. SSRN 3484530.
^Arcidiacono, Peter; Lovenheim, Michael. Affirmative Action and the Quality–Fit Trade-off. Journal of Economic Literature. 1 March 2016, 54 (1): 3–51. S2CID 1876963. doi:10.1257/jel.54.1.3.
^Arcidiacono, Peter; Aucejo, Esteban M.; Fang, Hanming; Spenner, Kenneth I. Does affirmative action lead to mismatch? A new test and evidence. Quantitative Economics. November 2011, 2 (3): 303–333. doi:10.3982/QE83. hdl:10419/150323.
Condit, Deirdre M.; Condit, Celeste M.; Achter, Paul J. Human equality, affirmative action, and genetic models of human variation. Rhetoric & Public Affairs. Spring 2001, 4 (1): 85–108. JSTOR 41939651. S2CID 144851327. doi:10.1353/rap.2001.0003.
Dobbin, Frank. Inventing equal opportunity (Princeton UP, 2009), scholarly history argues that Congress and the courts followed the lead of programs created by corporations.
Ghorbal, Karim. Essence coloniale d'une politique contemporaine: pour une approche fanonienne de la discrimination positive en France. Culture & History Digital Journal. 2015, 4 (2): e016. doi:10.3989/chdj.2015.016.
Gillon, Steven M. "The strange career of affirmative action: the Civil Rights Act of 1964" in his "That's Not What We Meant to Do": Reform and Its Unintended Consequences in Twentieth-Century America WW Norton, 2000) pp. 120–162.
Golland, David Hamilton. Constructing affirmative action: federal contract compliance and the building construction trades, 1956–1973 (PhD论文). City University of New York. 2008. OCLC 279305174. Order No. DA3325474.
Harper, Shannon, and Barbara Reskin. "Affirmative action at school and on the job." Annual Review of Sociology . 31 (2005): 357-379. online
Heriot, Gail L.; Somin, Alison. Affirmative Action for Men?: Strange Silences and Strange Bedfellows in the Public Debate Over Discrimination Against Women in College Admissions. Engage. November 28, 2011, 12 (3). SSRN 2891107.
Katznelson, Ira. When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (W. W. Norton, 2006)
Okechukwu, Amaka. To fulfill these rights: Political struggle over affirmative action and open admissions (Columbia UP, 2019).
Parashar, Sakshi. "Affirmative Action and Social Discrimination: A Functional Comparative Study of India, USA and South Africa." in Comparative Approaches in Law and Policy (Springer Nature Singapore, 2023) pp. 171–187.
Pierce, Jennifer. Racing for innocence: Whiteness, gender, and the backlash against affirmative action (Stanford University Press, 2012).online
Pollak, Oliver B. Antisemitism, the Harvard Plan, and the roots of reverse discrimination. Jewish Social Studies. 1983, 45 (2): 113–22. JSTOR 4467214.
Rubio, Philip F. A History of Affirmative Action, 1619-2000 (University Press of Mississippi, 2001) online
Sowell, Thomas.Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study (Yale University Press) analysis by a conservative
Stohler, Stephan. Untangling the Partisan Roots of Affirmative Action. Polity. January 2021, 53 (1): 41–74. doi:10.1086/712211.
Thurber, Timothy M. "Racial Liberalism, Affirmative Action, and the Troubled History of the President's Committee on Government Contracts." Journal of Policy History 18.4 (2006): 446-476.
Vieth-Entus, Susanne. Sozialquote: Berliner Gymnasien sollen mehr Schüler aus armen Familien aufnehmen. 2008-12-29. Der Tagesspiegel