Tian
Tian (天) is one of the oldest Chinese terms for heaven and is a central concept in Chinese mythology, philosophy, and cosmology. During the Shang dynasty (17th–11th century BCE), the highest deity was referred to as Shangdi or Di (帝, "Lord").[1] In the subsequent Zhou dynasty, Tian became synonymous with this figure. Prior to the 20th century, the worship of Tian was considered an orthodox cosmic principle in China.[further explanation needed] In Taoism and Confucianism, Tian (the celestial aspect of the cosmos, often translated as "Heaven") is described in relation to its complementary aspect, Dì (地, often translated as "Earth").[2][3] Together, they were understood to represent the two poles of the Three Realms of reality, with Humanity (人, rén) occupying the middle realm, and the lower world inhabited by demons (魔, mó) and spirits or "ghosts" (鬼, guǐ).[4] Tian was variously thought of as a supreme power presiding over lesser gods and human beings,[5][6] a force that could bring order, calm, catastrophe, or punishment,[7] a deity,[8][9] destiny,[9][7] an impersonal force governing events,[5][9] a holy world or afterlife, possibly containing multiple realms,[10][11] or some combination of these.[5] Characters  The modern Chinese character Tian (天) and its early seal script form combine dà 大 ("great; large") and yī 一 ("one"). However, some of the original characters in Shang oracle bone script and Zhōu bronzeware script depict an anthropomorphic figure with an enlarged head representing a "great person." In oracle and bronze inscriptions, the ideogram for dà 大 portrays a stick figure with arms stretched outward, symbolizing "great" or "large." The corresponding forms of Tian 天 emphasize the cranium of this "great person," represented either with a square or round head, or a head marked with one or two lines. Schuessler notes that some bronze graphs for Tian, depicting a person with a round head, resemble those for dīng 丁 (the "fourth Celestial stem"). He suggests that "the anthropomorphic graph may or may not indicate that the original meaning was 'deity' rather than 'sky'."[12] Two variant Chinese characters for Tian 天 are:
EtymologyReconstructions of Tian (天) in Middle Chinese (c. 6th–10th centuries CE) include t'ien,[14] t'iɛn,[15] tʰɛn > tʰian,[16] and then.[17] Reconstructions in Old Chinese (c. 6th–3rd centuries BCE) include t'ien,[14] t'en,[18] hlin,[19] thîn,[20] and l̥ˤin.[21] Schuessler links the etymology of Tian with the Turkic and Mongolian word tengri ("sky," "heaven," "deity"), as well as with Tibeto-Burman words such as taleŋ (Adi) and tǎ-lyaŋ (Lepcha), both meaning "sky" or "god".[12] He also suggests a possible connection between Tian and diān 巔 ("summit, mountaintop") or diān 顛 ("summit, top of the head, forehead"), which share cognates such as Zemeic Naga tiŋ ("sky").[22] Other reconstructions of 天's Old Chinese pronunciation, such as *qʰl'iːn[23] or *l̥ˤi[n][24] propose a voiceless lateral onset, either as a consonant cluster or a single consonant. Baxter and Sagart argue, based on dialectal differences in Eastern Han Chinese, as a phonetic component in phono-semantic compounds, and its role in transcribing foreign syllables, that around 200 CE 天 had two onsets: coronal *tʰ and dorsal *x. Both are thought to have derived from an earlier voiceless lateral *l̥ˤ.[25] The further etymology remains uncertain. One proposal links transcriptions of the Xiongnu word for "sky," haak-lin (赫連), as related.[26] CompoundsTian is a component in many Chinese compounds. Some notable examples include:
Chinese interpretations
In Confucianism and Taoism, the terms "Lord Heaven" and "Jade Emperor" were sometimes used for a supreme deity regarded as an anthropromorphized form of Tian,[27] and in some interpretations these names were considered synonymous. Tian was described as "the dwelling place of gods and other superhuman beings".[28][9] It was also regarded as "the guardian of both the moral laws of mankind and the physical laws of nature... and is synonymous with the divine will."[9] In Chinese culture, heaven has often been associated with "order," serving as "the blueprint for creation," "the mandate by which earthly rulers govern," and "the standard by which to measure beauty, goodness, and truth."[28] During the Zhou dynasty, nobles made the worship of heaven a central part of their political philosophy. They viewed it as comprising "many gods" who embodied order, kingship, and the Mandate of Heaven.[29] Confucianism
Confucianism contains a religious dimension characterized by reverence for Heaven (Tian) and Earth (Dì), which were regarded as powers regulating the natural world and influencing human affairs.[3] The concepts of yīn and yáng were considered integral to this relationship, extending to humanity and human institutions.[3] In this worldview, the "cosmos" and its "principles" served as the standard to which human conduct should conform.[3][excessive quote] Historically and in the present, many Confucian scholars have used the I Ching to divine events through the transformations of Tian and other natural forces.[3] Respect for Heaven and the natural world has also led some Confucian thinkers to adopt perspectives interpreted as environmentalist, emphasizing harmony between humanity and nature as a foundation of moral cultivation.[30] Within this framework, harmony was regarded as "the basis for a sincere mind."[3] The emperor, as Tiānzǐ ("Son of Heaven"), was traditionally central to Confucian political philosophy.[7] Mount Tai has been regarded as a sacred site in Confucianism and was traditionally the most important location where emperors offered sacrifices to Heaven and Earth.[31] ConfuciusThe concept of Tian was central in the teachings of Confucius. He expressed trust in Heaven and believed that it overruled human effort. He saw himself as fulfilling the will of Heaven, which, in his view, would not allow him to die before completing his mission.[32] References to Heaven appear throughout the Analects, where Confucius described its attributes and authority. Confucius honored Heaven as the supreme source of goodness:
He also acknowledged personal dependence upon Heaven:
Confucius taught that Heaven could not be deceived:
He believed that Heaven assigned tasks to people in order to teach them virtue and morality:
Confucius expressed confidence that Heaven knew and approved of his work, even if human rulers did not recognize him:
He also expressed complete trust in the providence of Heaven, even in times of danger:
MoziFor Mozi, Heaven was regarded as the divine ruler, in the same way that the Son of Heaven functioned as the earthly ruler. Mozi accepted the existence of spirits and minor demons—or at least argued that rituals should be performed as if they existed for social reasons—but considered their role to be carrying out the will of Heaven by observing human conduct and punishing wrongdoers. He taught that Heaven loves all people equally and that individuals should therefore extend love impartially to all human beings, without distinguishing between relatives and strangers.[39] Mozi also criticized the Confucians of his time for failing to follow what he considered the authentic teachings of Confucius. In his Will of Heaven (Tiānzhì, 天志), he wrote:
Schools of cosmologyThree major schools addressed the structure of Tian,[further explanation needed] from which most later hypotheses were derived.
These schools shaped popular conceptions of the universe and the earth until the 17th century, when they were gradually replaced by cosmological theories introduced from Europe.[41] In some traditions, the sky was also divided into the Jiǔtiān (九天, "nine divisions of heaven"): the central sky and the eight directions. BuddhismIn Buddhist cosmology, Tian (天) refers to the heavenly realms and pure lands. Certain classes of devas are also referred to as Tian. TaoismIn Taoism, the number of vertical heavenly layers varies across traditions. A common belief holds that there are 36 Tian (heavens), "arranged on six levels," each presided over by different deities.[7] The highest heaven is the "Great Web," which was sometimes described as the dwelling place of Yuanshi Tianzun.[7] After death, Taoists were sometimes believed to explore the "heavenly realms" or to become immortals (xiān).[10][42] These immortals could be benevolent or malevolent,[43] and rivalries between them were occasionally described. Some Taoist traditions, such as Shangqing Daoism regarded certain heavens as malevolent,[44] although Tian was more commonly conceived as a positive or benevolent force.[45] In some interpretations, heaven is viewed as synonymous with the Dao, or as a natural energy accessible through living in harmony with the Dao.[28] Taoist writings also describe a transcendent realm, sometimes referred to as "the Heavens," which was considered inconceivable to ordinary humans and even to Confucian scholars.[46][47] Higher spiritual manifestations of Daoist figures such as Laozi were believed to exist there during their lifetimes, absorbing the "purest yīn and yáng."[47] Immortals were also thought to be reborn into this realm after death. These spiritual forms were imagined as abstract beings capable of manifesting as mythical creatures, such as dragons who consumed yīn and yáng energy and traveled on clouds with their qi.[47] Chinese folk religionIn Chinese folk religion, some conceptions of Tian (heaven) described it as consisting of multiple, sphere-like realms arranged in a hierarchy.[41] These realms were believed to contain various spirits and creatures, including morally ambiguous beings such as fox spirits[11] and fire-breathing dragons.[48] Many practitioners of ancient folk religion also believed in the existence of a Tao realm.[47] Ahom religionThe Ahom religion, which ethnically originated from the Dai people of Yunnan in Southwest China, includes the concept of Mong Phi ("Heavenly Kingdom"), which is often identified with Tian (heaven).[49] YiguandaoIn Yiguandao, Tian (heaven) is divided into three vertical worlds:
Japanese interpretationsIn Shinto, heaven was sometimes conceived as a hierarchy of multiple, sphere-like realms inhabited by kami.[11] Myths concerning the kami describe their activities both on Earth and in heaven.[50] Heaven was generally regarded as a pure and orderly domain for nature deities in Shinto.[50] Interpretation by Western sinologistsSinologist Herrlee Creel, in his study The Origin of the Deity T'ien, provides an overview of the historical development of Tian (天) in ancient China. Creel notes that for centuries it was believed that all Chinese historically revered Tian as the highest deity, synonymous with Di, (帝) or Shangdi (上帝). However, evidence from Shang dynasty inscriptions indicates that Tian is not mentioned in these sources; instead, they frequently refer to Di or Shangdi. The term Tian appears primarily in Zhou texts, suggesting that it was originally a Zhou deity. After the Zhou conquest, Tian came to be identified with the Shang deity Di, in a manner analogous to how the Romans identified Zeus with Jupiter.[51] Creel highlights a historical shift in terminology for "god" from the Shang to the Zhou period. Shang oracle inscriptions often used Di and Shangdi, while Zhou bronzes and texts increasingly employed Tian. For example, the chapter Tang Shi (湯誓, "Tang's speech") demonstrates early Zhou usage of Tian alongside Shangdi. According to tradition, Tang of Shang addressed his subjects to overthrow King Jie of the Xia dynasty:
Based on the evidence, Creel proposes that Tian developed from earlier concepts of kingship. In both Shang and Zhou pictographs dà (大, "great man") represented a large or important person. The Zhou added a head to this figure to denote Tian (天) originally meaning "king" or "kings" (cf. wáng, 王). Over time, the meaning of Tian expanded to refer to ancestral kings controlling fate and providence, and ultimately to a single omnipotent deity. Tian also came to designate both "heaven" as a realm for ancestral kings and gods, and the visible "sky".[52] Another possibility is that Tian may be related to Tengri, suggesting a potential origin as a loanword from a prehistoric Central Asian language.[53] Western scholar Kelly James Clark has argued that Confucius may have viewed Tian as an anthropomorphic deity, which Clark terms the "Heavenly Supreme Emperor," though most other Confucian scholars disagree with this interpretation.[54] See also
ReferencesCitations
Sources
External links Look up 天 in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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