Self-esteem functions

Self-esteem functions are psychological theories that explain why the capacity for self-evaluation may have adaptive value. Scholars argue that self-esteem serves as more than a personal feeling of worth; it operates as a mechanism that helps individuals navigate social life, maintain motivation, and cope with challenges. From an evolutionary perspective, self-esteem has been linked to monitoring social acceptance, guiding cooperative behavior, and supporting survival and reproduction. Researchers have also suggested that self-esteem provides feedback on coping effectiveness and contributes to goal achievement.

Several theoretical models describe these functions. Sociometer theory views self-esteem as a gauge of inclusion within social groups, while self-determination theory associates it with the fulfillment of psychological needs such as autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Ethological accounts emphasize its role in dominance and mate selection, and terror management theory highlights its importance in buffering against death-related anxiety. Other perspectives connect self-esteem to success, the belief in personal control, and broader positive illusions that sustain motivation and psychological well-being.

The sociometer theory was developed by Mark Leary^[1] to explain the functions of self-esteem. Leary and his colleagues stated that a sociometer is a measure of how a person is desirable by other people and this is oftentimes influenced through a person's self-esteem. They suggested that self-esteem has evolved to monitor one's social acceptance and is used as a gauge for avoiding social devaluation and rejection. The sociometer theory is strongly grounded in evolutionary theories which suggest that survival depends on social acceptance for reasons such as protection, reciprocal behaviours and most importantly reproduction. The monitoring of one's acceptance via self-esteem is therefore crucial in order to achieve these kinds of social interactions and be better able to compete for the social benefits of them.

Kirkpatrick and Ellis expanded on Leary's work and suggested that the sociometer's function was not only to ensure that an individual was not excluded from their social group but also to rate the strength of the social group compared to other groups.^[2]

Self-determination theory (SDT) states that man is born with an intrinsic motivation to explore, absorb and master his surroundings and that true high self-esteem is reported when the basic psychological nutrients, or needs, of life (relatedness, competency and autonomy) are in balance.^[3]

The ethological perspective^[4] suggests that self-esteem is an adaptation that has evolved for the purpose of maintaining dominance in relationships. It is said that human beings have evolved certain mechanisms for monitoring dominance in order to facilitate reproductive behaviours such attaining a mate. Because attention and favorable reactions from others were associated with being dominant, feelings of self-esteem have also become associated with social approval and deference. From this perspective, the motive to evaluate oneself positively in evolutionary terms is to enhance one's relative dominance.^[1]

Leary et al. tested the idea of dominance and social acceptance on self-esteem. Trait self-esteem appeared to be related to the degree to which participants felt accepted by specific people in their lives, but not to the degree to which participants thought those individuals perceived them as dominant. Acceptance and dominance appeared to have independent effects on self-esteem.^[5]

The terror management theory (TMT), developed by Sheldon Solomon et al.,^[6] which in relation to self-esteem states that having self-esteem helps protect individuals from the fear they experience at the prospect of their own death. It is suggested that people are constantly searching for ways to enhance their self-esteem in order to quell unconscious death anxiety. This internalisation of cultural values is also a key factor in terror management theory in which self-esteem is seen as a culturally based construction derived from integrating specific contingencies valued by society into one's own 'worldview'. High self-esteem promotes positive affect and personal growth, psychological well-being and coping as a buffer against anxiety in the knowledge of our eventual certain death, and reduces defensive anxiety related behaviour.^[3] Terror management theory, based primarily on the writings of Ernest Becker^[7][8] and Otto Rank,^[9] posits that self-esteem is sought because it provides protection against the fear of death.^[10][6] From this perspective, the fear of death is rooted in an instinct for self-preservation that humans share with other species.^[11]

Some researchers believe that having a high self-esteem facilitates goal achievement. Bednar, Wells, and Peterson^[12] proposed that self-esteem is a form of subjective feedback about the adequacy of the self. This feedback (self-esteem) is positive when the individual copes well with circumstances and is negative when avoiding threats. In turn, self-esteem affects subsequent goal achievement; high self-esteem increases coping, and low self-esteem leads to further avoidance.^[1]

Illusion of control is the tendency for human beings to believe they can control, or at least influence, outcomes that they demonstrably have no influence over, a mindset often seen in those who gamble.^[13] However, for individuals who are not gamblers, Taylor and Brown suggest it may serve to be a function of self-esteem. Belief that there is a level of control over the situation a person is in, may lead to an increased level of motivation and performance in a self-regulating manner.^[14] In other words, one will work harder to become successful if they believe they have control over their success. A high self-esteem would be needed for this belief of control and so the need for a sense of control may be a function of self-esteem.

When applying sociometer theory, it suggests that the illusion of control is an adaptive response in order to self-regulate behaviour to cultural norms and thereby provide an individual with an increased level of self-esteem. In social psychology, the illusion of control is grouped with two other concepts and termed as the 'positive illusions'.^{[15][self-published source?]}

• Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., Rosenblatt, A., et al. (1992). Why do people need self-esteem? Converging evidence that self-esteem serves an anxiety-buffering function. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 913-922.